Reviewing the literature Observational Methods & Research Designs

1. Reviewing the literatureObservational Methods & Research Designs Psych 231: Research Methods in Psychology

2. ReggieNet Quizzes • Quiz 2 is Due Fri. at midnight. • Next week’s labs: • Download and read the Assefi & Garry (2003) article before labs (a pdf is available in the ReggieNet Resources folder) • Group Projects – • An experiment, at least 1 independent variable and 1 dependent variable • Limited resources: 10-15 per group of run time, one room, ~20 participants Announcements

3. Why do a review of the literature? • What is the literature? • How do you search the literature? Reviewing the literature

4. What are the underlying motivations for doing a review of the literature? • Getting ideas. • What has been done, what hasn’t been done? • Understanding the relevant theories. • What variables are important? • Avoid past mistakes. • Source Types: Primary and Secondary Why review the literature?

5. Primary Sources - essentially reading the original report • Journal articles • Edited books (sometimes) • Professional meetings • Electronic publishing (fairly new, pluses and minuses) • Recommendation: stick to peer review journals, there are some that just require authors to pay-to-publish • Faculty members & other personal communications What is the literature? Primary vs. Secondary Sources (~3 mins) Primary vs. Secondary Sources (~3 mins)

6. Advantages: Good starting place Often reviews a lot of relevant literature Relatively brief descriptions • Secondary Sources - reading a report of the report • Literature Reviews • Psychological Bulletin, Annual Review of Psychology • Text books • Citations in books and articles Disadvantages: • Somebody else’s description • May be incorrect • May be biased • Not enough detail What is the literature? Primary vs. Secondary Sources (~3 mins) Primary vs. Secondary Sources (~3 mins)

7. How do you search the literature? • PsycInfo is a powerful tool • At Milner Library web page • Some tutorials: video (~4 mins) | video (~5 mins) | video (~55 mins) | more videos here • GoogleScholar is an increasingly powerful tool • https://scholar.google.com/ • Use the reference sections at the end of articles: An “old school method” that is still a really good one Reviewing the literature

8. Claim:People perform best with a good night of sleep. • Sleep walking story (2) • Sleep and high school (2) • Science of sleep • To begin to answer the claim we’ve got to FOCUS the idea • Break the general idea down into smaller more specific ideas • Develop theories/hypotheses as to how & why • EVALUATE the idea (e.g., the ROT test) • TEST the idea: using research methods to test parts of the theory (hypotheses) Developing your Research Idea

9. Claim:People perform best with a good night of sleep. • Focusing the idea • What do we mean by “perform best”? • Academic performance? • Physical performance? • What do we mean by “good night sleep”? • 8 hrs?, Uninterrupted?, 2 hours of REM? • What is the underlying theory? What hypotheses do we test? • e.g., Consolidation of memories happen during REM sleep, so getting more REM sleep should lead to better recall Operational definitions Developing your Research Idea

10. Claim:People perform best with a good night of sleep. • Evaluating the idea (ROT) • Can we replicate the research, do we get similar results? • Answer may depend on how you choose to make your observations (your research methods) • How do we observe performance? How do we observe good sleep? • Recall tests, recognition tests, “brain waves,” ,,, • Are our predictions testable? Developing your Research Idea

11. Claim:People perform best with a good night of sleep. • How might we go about trying to test this claim? • What are the things (variables) of interest? • What is the hypothesized relationship between these variables? • How should we test it? • How do we observe the behavior? • What research design should we use? What are our goals? Developing your Research Idea

12. Observational approaches: Data collection • How do we observe the behaviors of interest? • Types of research designs • What kinds of research questions are you investigating? • E.g., Cause and effect? Descriptive? Conducting Research

13. Observational approaches: Data collection • How do we observe the behaviors of interest? • Naturalistic observation • Participant observation • Survey & interviews • Archival data • Systematic (contrived/analog) observation • Experiments Direct Observation Observation without manipulation Observational Methods

14. Naturalistic Observation: Observation and description of behaviors within a natural setting • High external validity • Good for behaviors that don’t occur (as well) in more controlled settings • Often a first step in the research project • Can be difficult to do well • Hard not to influence things (reactivity effect) • Takes a long time • Need multiple observers to agree Jane Goodall Dian Fossey Observational Methods

15. Participant Observation: The researcher engages in the same behaviors as those being observed • May allow observation of behaviors not normally accessible to outside observation • Internal perspective from direct participation • But could lead to loss of objectivity • Potential for contamination by observer http://www.sil.org/~headlandt/students.htm Observational Methods

16. Survey methods: Questionnaires and interviews that ask people to provide information about themselves • Widely used methodology • Best way to collect some kinds of information: • Descriptive, behavioral, and preferential • e.g., demographic information, recreational behavior, and attitudes • Large amounts of data can be collected quickly with relatively little cost (effort, time, etc.) • But they’re often not as “cheap” as you may think • Done correctly, can be a very difficult method Observational Methods

17. Archival data: Rather than making direct observations, researcher examines existing public or private records • If the appropriate existing records can be found, no need for data collection • Data set may be more extensive than what you could collect yourself • However, you are limited to the data that exists, may be no way to collect follow-up data • Data may be of observations that you cannot (ethically) collect or manipulate • E.g., murder rates, who marries whom, etc. • Word of caution: be aware of how and where the data were collected Observational Methods

18. Advantages • Complex patterns of behavior in particular settings • Useful when little is known about the subject of study • May learn about something that never would have thought of looking at experimentally • Disadvantages • Causality is a problem • Threats to internal validity because of lack of control • Every confound is a threat • Lots of alternative explanations • Directionality of the relationship isn’t known • Sometimes the results are not reproducible Observation without manipulation Observational Methods

19. Systematic (Contrived/Analog Observation): The observer sets up the situation that is observed • Observations of one or more specific variables made in a precisely defined setting • Much less global than naturalistic observations • Often takes less time • However, since it is not a natural setting, the behavior may be changed Observational Methods

20. Case studies • Intensive study of a small set of individuals and their behaviors • Correlational • Looking for a co-occurrence relationship between two (or more) variables • Quasi-experimental • Experimental designs with one or more non-random variables • Experimental • Investigating the cause-and-effect relationship between two (or more) variables through the manipulation of variables Types of research designs

21. This view has some disadvantages • There may be poor generalizabilty • There are typically a number of possible confounds and alternative explanations • Intensive study of a single person, a very traditional method. Typically: • Descriptive (and non-experimental). • Interesting (and often rare) case. Fits well with clinical work. • Phineas Gage(Sci. Am. Show) • Sept 13, 1848 Explosion propelled a railroad tamping rod through his brain • Changed personality Case Histories See: Oliver Sacks’ books for some other great examples interview

22. Measure two (or more) variables for each individual and see if the variables co-occur (suggesting that they are related) • Used for: • Predictions • Establishing Reliabilityand Validity • Evaluating theories • Limitation: Shouldn’t make casual claims Y X ? or or Correlational Methods

23. We’d like to say: • To be able to do this: • There must be co-variation between the two variables • The causal variable must come first • Directionality problem • Happy people sleep well • Or is it that sleeping well when you are happy? • Need to eliminate plausible alternative explanations • Third variable problem Y X causes X Y X Y or • Do Storks bring babies? • Neyman (1952) reported a strong positive correlation between number of babies and stork sightings Causal claims

24. Source: Kronmal (1993) r = 0.63 • Do Storks bring babies? • Neyman (1952) reported a strong positive correlation between number of babies and stork sightings Causal claims

25. Is killing storks and effective method of controlling birth rates? Theory 1: Storks deliver babies

26. Theory 2: Underlying third variable

27. Manipulating and controlling variables in laboratory experiments • Must have a comparison • At least two groups (often more) that get compared • One groups serves as a control for the other group • Variables • Independent variable - the variable that is manipulated • Allows for the testing of causal hypotheses • Dependent variable - the variable that is measured • Control variables - held constant for all participants in the experiment The experimental method

28. Advantages • Precise control possible • Precise measurement possible • Theory testing possible • Can make causal claims • Manipulating and controlling variables in laboratory experiments Disadvantages • Artificial situations may restrict generalization to “real world” • Complex behaviors may be difficult to measure The experimental method