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The Role of Car Use for Subjective Well-Being

The Role of Car Use for Subjective Well-Being. Cecilia Bergstad Jakobsson (co-PI) Amelie Gamble Tommy Gärling (PI) Olle Hagman Merrit Polk University of Gothenburg, Göteborg, Sweden Margareta Friman Lars E. Olsson Karlstad University, Sweden Dick Ettema

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The Role of Car Use for Subjective Well-Being

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  1. The Role of Car Use for Subjective Well-Being Cecilia Bergstad Jakobsson (co-PI) Amelie Gamble Tommy Gärling (PI) Olle Hagman Merrit Polk University of Gothenburg, Göteborg, Sweden Margareta Friman Lars E. Olsson Karlstad University, Sweden Dick Ettema Utrecht University, The Netherlands

  2. Subjective Well-Being (SWB) Definitions SWB has a cognitive and an affective component. The cognitive component is a globaljudgement of (current or past) satisfaction with one´s life. It is heavily influenced by and slightly influences domain satisfaction, e.g. judgments of satisfaction with one´s health, work, marriage and leisure. The affectíve component (sometimes referred to as affective SWB) is identified with (current or past) mood which vary from positive to negative.

  3. Subjective Well-Being (SWB) Measurement SWB is either measured by a single-item scale: ”Taken all things together, how would you say your life is today? Would you say you are very happy, rather happy, or not happy at all?” (World Values Survey, Eurobarometer) Or by a multi-item scale “In most ways my life is close to my ideal; The conditions of my life are excellent; I am satisfied with my life; So far I have achieved the important things I want in life; If I could live my life over again, I would change almost nothing.” (Satisfaction With Life Scale, SWLS; Diener et al.) Mood is measured by self-report rating scales (but physiological methods may also be used): ”Rate how positive-negative you feel at the moment/have felt previous week.” ”Indicate how frequently you have felt positive/negative previous week.”

  4. Subjective Well-Being (SWB) Determinants • Personality (50%) Higher for extravert than introvert people Higher for emotional stable than emotional instable people • Socio-demographic variables (10%) Women more variable than men U-shaped relation to age (minimum at 40) Increases with education Increases with employment Negatively accelerated function of income Increases after marriage, decreases after divorce or death of spouse • Intentional activities (40%) Increases with goal pursuit Increases with positive affect associated with activities Decreases with daily hassles (negative stress)

  5. SWB activity performance travel time cost reliability safety security satisfaction with travel mood Daily Travel and SWB (1)

  6. psychological motives satisfaction with travel car use socio-demographic variables car access Daily Travel and SWB (2)

  7. Survey in September-November 2007 • Sample • 1,330 (44.3 %) randomly sampled Swedish residents: • 196 (19.6 %) from urbanareas (>200,000) • 536 (53.6 %) from semi-rural areas (20,000 - 200,000) • 543 (54.3 %) from rural areas (<20,000) 53.7% women/mean age 46.3 years Singles without children 12.7% Single 19.8% Singles with children 5.1% Cohabiting 77.4% Cohabiting without children 34.3% Without children 47.0% Cohabuting with children 43.1% With children 48.2% 35.2% had a university degree 56.3% was full-time employed/69.8% mean employment degree 1,134 (85.2%) access to private cars

  8. Survey in September-November 2007 • Questionnaire • Psychological motives for car use • Performance of out-of-home activities previous week • Affect associated with performance of the activities • Travel mode to the activities • Mood (previous week) • SWB (life in general) • Satisfaction with travel • Socio-demographic variables

  9. Survey in September-November 2007 • Measures • Scales of instrumental-independence motives (11 items 0-6, M = 5.0/SD = 0.9,  = .87) • Scales of affective-symbolic motives (14 items 0-6, M = 1.8/SD = 1.2,  = .91) (0-6) • Number of weekly car trips (M = 11.2/SD = 8.7) • Percent car use as driver to activities (M = 69.4/SD = 33.0) • Percent car use as passenger to activities (M = 13.0/SD = 21.0) • SWB (SWLS, 6 items 0-6, M = 4.0/SD=1.3,  = .92) • Weekly mood (SCAS, 2 items -3-3, M=4.0/SD = 1.3,  > .75) • Satisfaction with activities (SAS, mean 4.5 items -3-3, M = 4.3/SD = 0.9,  > .77) • Satisfaction with travel (STS, 5 items 0-6, M = 3.7/SD = 1.3,  = .77)

  10. Study 1Affective-symbolic and instrumental-independence motives for daily car use mediating effects of socio-demographic variables on car use Research Question To what degree do instrumental-indepedence and affective-symbolic motives mediate relationships between socio-demographic variables and daily car use?

  11. Study 1: Measures of psychological motives Affective-symbolic To what extent do you agree to that … I express myself through my car; Driving is sporty and adventurous; Driving is my hobby; The car gives me power in traffic; The car provides privacy; I enjoy driving a nice, good-looking car; I can distinguish myself from others;I get a kick out of driving; I am a bit in love with my car; Driving is enjoyable; The car gives me prestige; Driving is relaxing; I love driving fast; I love the drone of my engine and muffler. Instrumental-indepenedence To what extent do you agree to that … The car brings me wherever I want; Driving saves a lot of time; Driving makes my life more easy; I can visit family and friends; Feelings of freedom the car gives me; Driving is comfortable; I am free to stop everywhere; I am not dependent on others; I get out; I can chose my own route; The car enables recreational trips and holidays. 11

  12. Number of weekly car trips R2adj = .09  .11 Study 1: Results (1) Socio-Demographic Variables n beta  beta Instrumental-independence motive 1126 0.10 Affective-symbolic motive 1127 0.08 Sex (man 1, woman -1)11290.09 0.08* Age (40 – 54 years 1 vs. 18 – 39 years -1) 1134 -0.02 0.02 Age (55 + years 1 vs. 18 – 39 years -1) 1134 -0.10 -0.08 Cohabitant (1 vs. single -1) marital status 1073 -0.01 0.01 Children (1 vs. no children -1) 1073 0.14 0.15 University (1 vs. lower -1) education 1134 -0.04 -0.02 Employment (%) 1120 0.07 0.07 Income (1-6) 1054 -0.04 -0.05 Urban (-1) vs semi-rural (1) residential area 1092 0.07 0.08 Urban (-1) vs rural (1) residential area 10920.09 0.08* Number of cars1119 0.12 0.10 *Partial mediation by instrumental-independence motive

  13. % car trips as driver R2adj = .14  .18 Study 1: Results (2) Socio-Demographic Variables n beta  beta Instrumental-independence motive 1126 0.17 Affective-symbolic motive 1127 0.04 Sex (man 1, woman -1) 11290.18 0.19* Age (40 – 54 years 1 vs. 18 – 39 years -1) 1134 0.01 0.04 Age (55 + years 1 vs. 18 – 39 years -1) 1134 0.05 0.07 Cohabitant (1 vs. single -1) marital status 1073-0.13 -0.11 Children (1 vs. no children -1)10730.09 0.10 University (1 vs. lower -1) education1134-0.10 -0.07 Employment (%) 1120 0.05 0.05 Income (1-6)1054-0.08 -0.09Urban (-1) vs semi-rural (1) residential area10920.11 0.10* Urban (-1) vs rural (1) residential area10920.11 0.09* Number of cars11190.21 0.19 *Partial mediation by instrumental-independence motive

  14. % car trips as passenger R2adj = .07 .08 Study 1: Results (3) Socio-Demographic Variables n beta  beta Instrumental-independence motive 11260.07 Affective-symbolic motive 1127 0.04 Sex (man 1, woman -1)1129 -0.22 -0.22 Age (40 – 54 years 1 vs. 18 – 39 years -1) 1134 0.02 0.04 Age (55 + years 1 vs. 18 – 39 years -1) 1134 0.050.07 Cohabitant (1 vs. single -1) marital status10730.10 0.09 Children (1 vs. no children -1) 1073 -0.09 - 0.09 University (1 vs. lower -1) education 1134 -0.04 -0.05 Employment (%) 1120 -0.09 -0.09 Income (1-6)1054 -0.09 -0.09 Urban (-1) vs semi-rural (1) residential area 1092 0.03 0.03 Urban (-1) vs rural (1) residential area10920.07 0.07 Number of cars 1119 -0.04 -0.02

  15. Study 2Impact of Routine Out-of-Home Activities on SWB Research Question Does affect associated with performance of out-of-home routine activities influence SWB? Is this effect mediated by mood?

  16. Mood M=4.0/SD=1.3 R2adj = .02 Study 2: Results (1) Socio-Demographic Variables n beta Sex (man 1 vs. woman -1) 1325 0.00 Age (40 – 54 year 1 vs. 18 – 39 years -1)1322 0.00 Age (55 + year 1 vs. 18 – 39 years -1) 1322 0.06 Cohabitant (1 vs. single -1) marital status 1316 0.06 Children (1 vs. no children -1) 1318 0.01 University (1 vs. lower -1) education 1319 0.01 Income (1-6) 1211 0.10 Employment (%)1313 0.06 Urban (1 vs rural -1) residential area 1275 -0.04 Semi-rural (1 vs rural -1) residential area 1275 0.02

  17. Study 2: Results (2) Socio-Demographic Variables n beta beta Sex (man 1 vs. woman -1) 1325 0.00 0.04 Age (40 – 54 year 1 vs. 18 – 39 years -1)13220.000.08 Age (55 + year 1 vs. 18 – 39 years -1)1322 0.06 0.07 Cohabitant (1 vs. single -1) marital status1316 0.06 0.15 Children (1 vs. no children -1) 1318 0.01 0.02 University (1 vs. lower -1) education 1319 0.01 0.04 Income (1-6)12110.100.13 Employment (%)13130.060.10 Urban (1 vs rural -1) residential area 1275 -0.04 0.01 Semi-rural (1 vs rural -1) residential area 1275 0.02 0.04 SWB M=1.0/SD=1.3 R2adj = .07

  18. SWB M=4.0/SD=1.3 R2adj = .43 Socio-demographic variables (R2adj = .07) n M SD 1320 1.0 1.3 990 1.1 1.2 1108 0.8 1.1 787 1.2 1.2 639 1.9 1.1 402 1.6 1.3 848 1.8 1.1 558 1.9 1.1 289 1.6 1.2 243 1.2 1.3 beta 0.32 0.19 0.06 0.04 0.07 0.12 -0.04 0.04 0.07 beta 0.16 0.16 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.07 -0.01 0.05 0.05 beta 0.25 -0.02* 0.03* -0.01 0.00* 0.01* -0.02* 0.01 0.01* 0.01* Study 2: Results (3) Mood Work/school Non-durables purchase Other purchases Sports/exercise/outings Hobby/religious/courses Visiting relatives/friends Restaurants/entertainment Picking up/leaving children Children’s leisure activities Mood R2adj = .30 *Full mediation

  19. Study 3SWB related to satisfaction with daily travel Research Question Does satisfaction with daily travel have direct and indirect (via satisfaction with activity performance) positive effects on SWB? Does car use play a more important role for this than other travel modes?

  20. Study 3: Measure of satisfaction with travel To what extent do you agree to that … I amcompletely satisfied with my daily travel; My travel facilitates my daily life; When I think of my daily travel the positive aspects outweighs the negative; I do not want to change anything regarding my daily travel;My daily travel makes me feel good 20

  21. Socio-Demographic variables #cars in household Weekly car use (%) Sex (man 1 vs. woman -1) Age (40 – 54 year 1 vs. 18 – 39 years -1) Age (55 + year 1 vs. 18 – 39 years -1) Cohabitant (yes 1, no -1) Children (yes 1, no -1) University (1 vs. lower -1) education Employment (%) Income (1-6) Urban (1 vs. rural -1) residential area Semi-rural (1 vs. rural -1) residential area n beta 1313 -0.02 12900.08 1325 0.05 1322 -0.05 13220.14 1316 -0.03 1318 -0.05 1319 0.01 1313 0.04 1211 0.03 1275 -0.03 1275 0.01 Satisfaction with travel M=3.7/SD=1.3 R2adj = .02 Study 3: Results (1)

  22. Mood M=1.0/SD=1.3 R2adj = .07  .31 Study 3: Results (2) Satisfaction with travel Satisfaction with activities #cars in household Weekly car use (%) Sex (man 1 vs. woman -1) Age (40 – 54 years 1 vs. 18 – 39 years -1) Age (55 + years 1 vs. 18 – 39 years -1) Cohabitant (yes 1, no -1) Children (yes 1, no -1,) University (1 vs. lower -1) education Employment (%) Income (1-6) Urban (1 vs. rural -1) residential area Semi-rural (1 vs. rural -1) residential area n beta  beta 1317 0.21 0.08* 1298 0.52 1313 0.03 0.01 1290 -0.03 0.01 1325 -0.01 -0.05 1322 0.01 -0.01 1322 0.03 0.04 1316 0.09 0.06 1318 0.02 0.01 1319 0.01 -0.01 13130.050.06 1211 0.090.05 1275 -0.04 -0.03 1275 0.02 0.02 *Partial mediation

  23. SWB M=4.0/SD=1.3 R2adj = .13 .21 Study 3: Results (3) Satisfaction with travel Satisfaction with activities #cars in household Weekly car use (%) Sex (man 1 vs. woman -1) Age (40 – 54 years 1 vs. 18 – 39 years -1) Age (55 + year 1 vs. 18 – 39 years -1) Cohabitant (yes 1, no -1) Children (yes 1, no -1,) University (1 vs. lower -1) education Employment (%) Income (1-6) Urban (1 vs. rural -1) residential area Semi-rural (1 vs. rural -1) residential area n beta beta 1317 0.23 0.15* 1298 0.30 1313 0.06 0.05 1290 0.00 0.03 1325 0.03 0.01 1322 -0.08 -0.08 1322 0.04 0.04 1316 0.14 0.15 1318 0.02 0.01 1319 0.05 0.04 13130.090.10 1211 0.11 0.09 1275 0.02 0.02 1275 -0.05 -0.04 *Partial mediation

  24. Conclusions • Affect associated with out-of-home routine activities accounted for 30% of the variance in mood and because of full mediation, 12% of the variance in SWB. Conversely, the socio-demographic variables account for 7% of the variance in SWB and 2% of the variance in Mood. This is close to what has been found in previous research. A new finding is that routine activities have such a large impact. • Satisfaction with daily travel increases Mood and SWB, partially because (= partial mediation) it facilitates activity participation, partly because of direct effects. • In the investigated sample car use plays some role for satisfaction with daily travel. Why not a larger role? • In the investigated sample instrumental-independence motives are more important than affective-symbolic motives for car use. Why? • Only a small proportion of the variance in car use was accounted for, more by the socio-demographic variables than the psychological motives which only (partially) mediated some of the relationship between sex and car use. Why?

  25. Overview of travel and SWB Ettema, D., Gärling, T., Olsson, L. E., & Friman, M. (2009). Out-of-home activities, daily travel, and subjective well-being. Manuscript submitted for publication, • Svensk slutrapport • Jakobsson Bergstad, C., Gamble, A., Hagman, O., Polk, M., Gärling, T., & Olsson, L. E. (2009). Bilens roll för människors subjektiva välbefinnande [The role of the car for people’s subjective wellbeing] (CFK rapport No. 2). Göteborg, Sweden: Center for consumer science, School of Business, Economics, and Law, University of Gothenburg. • Study 1 • Jakobsson Bergstad, C., Gamble, A., Hagman, O., Polk, M., Gärling, T., & Olsson, L. E. (2009). Affective-symbolic and instrumental-independence psychological motives mediating effects of socio-demographic variables on daily car use (Göteborg Psychological Reports No. 39:3). Göteborg, Sweden: Department of Psychology, University of Gothenburg. • Study 2 • Jakobsson Bergstad, C., Gamble, A., Hagman, O., Polk, M., Gärling, T., Ettema, D., Friman, M., & Olsson, L. E. (2009). Impacts of routine out-of-home activities on subjective well-being (Göteborg Psychological Reports No. 39:4). Göteborg, Sweden: Department of Psychology, University of Gothenburg. • Study 3 • Jakobsson Bergstad, C., Gamble, A., Hagman, O., Polk, M., Gärling, T., Ettema, D., Friman, M., & Olsson, L. E. (2009). Subjective well-being related to satisfaction with daily travel (Göteborg Psychological Reports No. 39:5). Göteborg, Sweden: Department of Psychology, University of Gothenburg.

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