Biology EOC Review

Biology EOC Review 1 largest 4 2 3 5 6 7 9 smallest 8 Living and nonliving

Characteristics of LifeTo be alive you must….. • Made of cells • *unicellular – one celled • or • * multicellular – many celled with levels of • organization (cellstissuesorgans systems organism) • Reproduce • *asexual – offspring are genetic clones of parent • *sexual – offspring have genetic variation from parents- MEIOSIS • Use and obtain materials for energy(metabolism) • * energy is required for life processes • * autotrophs make their own food (photosynthesis/chemosynthesis) • * heterotrophs eat other organisms for food • Maintain Homeostasis • * maintenance or regulation of body conditions such as body temperature, blood sugar level, water balance (cell membrane), pH • Genetic/Hereditary Material • * DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid – is the genetic material that codes for proteins of all organisms. The genetic code is “universal” A-T C-G /A-U C-G • Respond to stimuli • * responding to the biotic and abiotic factors in the environment are key to survival-hot, cold, hungry….etc. • Grow and Development • * growth – by cell division or cell enlargement- MITOSIS • * development – any change from conception to death - embryonic, puberty, aging • Evolutionary Adaptation- (genetic change over time) • * adaptations – structures, behaviors, or processes that aid in an organisms survival are passed on from parent to offspring.

Ecology Organelle  cells  tissue  organs  organ system  Organisms  Populations  Community  Ecosystem  Biomes  Biosphere • Populations – are members of the same species living in the same area • Ecosystem- all the living and non-living factors in a certain area Population growth – *affected by natural disaster, disease, food, water, and shelter * Carrying capacity– the maximum number the environment can support due to food, water, and shelter Community Interactions * Competition – food, water, shelter * Predation- hunt, kill, eat * Symbiosis – parasitism +-, commensalism +0, and mutualism ++ Food Chains and Food webs 10% energy transferred to the next level. The rest lost as heat. 27kcal 270kcal 2700kcal 27000kcal Ecological succession Climax community Pioneer speices

Biochemistry • Organic – contains Carbon • Macromolecules are often built by dehydration synthesis and digested by hydrolysis Poly=many Mono= one • Four main types • Carbohydrates –glucose/starch, quick ENERGY, in cell membrane ose=sugar • 2) Lipids – fatty acid/glycerol, stored energy/insulation, waxy coating, hydrophobic- no mix with H2O), in cell membrane 3) Proteins –amino acids – ENZYMES, Polypeptide, cell transport, in cell membrane ase= enzyme 4) Nucleic Acids –nucleotides , genetic/hereditary info DNA or RNA, in nucleus • Enzymes are proteins that speed up chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy. They have a specific shape and interact with a specific substrate which binds at the active site. Lock and Key. Never changes • Enzymes help break or build macromolecules • Enzymes are reusable and are not changed during a chemical reaction. They can be damaged at temperature and pH extremes. • Cold- enzymes work slowly • Warm- work faster • Too Hot- denature/destroyed

Cells • Cell theory - 3 parts 1) cells are basic unit of life 2) cells come from existing cells (cell division) 3) all organisms are composed of cells • Prokaryotic versus Eukaryotic A) simple A) complex B) no nucleus B)nucleus C) no MB organelles C) has MB organelles D) only ribosomes D) protists, fungi D) bacteria plants, and animals • Organelles – little cellular organs that carrying out specific jobs / chemical reactions 1) chloroplast – photosynthesis creates glucose 2) mitochondria – cellular respiration creates ATP(energy) 3) ribosomes – protein synthesis 4) vacuoles – storage 5) nucleus – contains DNA and controls cell actions 6)lysosome- cellular digestion(enzymes) 7)cell membrane- controls what enters and leaves cell semi-permeable/Homeostasis • Plant versus Animal A) has cell wall A) no cell wall B) has chloroplasts B) has no chloroplasts C)Photosynthesis C) has small vacuoles D) has large vacuole ribosomes, metabolism, 4 biomolecules, unicellular Robert Hooke – 1st to look at and name cell eukaryotes, go thru cellular respiration, & have mitochondria multicellular

Cellular Transport • Plasma/Cell membrane controls homeostasis (balance), phospholipid by layer with proteins • Semi-permeable; selective on what enters and leaves cell Types of Passive Transport – NO ENERGY required 1) Diffusion – moves substances from high to low concentrations (O2, CO2, perfume, dye in water) (equilibrium when particles are distributed equally) 2) Osmosis – the diffusion of WATER from high to lower water concentrations; water moves towards the most solute. (hypertonic-water out/cell shrinks; hypotonic-water in/cell swells; isotonic-water in/out/cell stays same) Ex) cell in salt water – shrivels Ex) cell in fresh water swells ***SOLUTE SUCKS!!! Look at outside to inside Hyper, Hypo, Isotonic Active Transport – REQUIRES ENERGY– moves substances against the concentration gradient from low to high concentrations- Endocytosis - in cell 20% 20% 80% 20% 80% 20% iso hypo hyper Out of cell Phago-solid and Peno-drink

Thylakoid: sac like membranes/LDR Stroma space between thylakoids Grana: stack of thylakiods Photosynthesis= makes glucose and O2 products reactants • Producers/Autotrophsconvert sunlight to chemical energy in glucose • EQUATION: 6CO2 + 6H2O + E  C6H12O6 + 6O2 • Carbon dioxide + water + energy  glucose + oxygen • Takes place in LEAVES • Autotrophs use carbon dioxide and water and produce oxygen and glucose • Guard cells/Stomata control gas exchange & Water loss ( transpiration) • CHLOROPLASTS -site of photosynthesis. • Produces glucose and oxygen for consumers • Pigments-Chlorophyll / carotene stomata O2 & H2O CO2 Stomata

Adenine 3 Phosphates Ribose Cellular Respiration=makes EnergyC6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O + 36 ATP ATP • Cellular respiration is the process by which organisms break down food to release its energy. This energy is then stored in ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) • Three parts to ATP 1) adenine 2) ribose 3) 3 phosphates (high energy) • ATP/ADP cycle – It fuels most cellular • process. ATP loses a phosphate to become ADP • ATP Uses-movement, • active transport (peno, phagocytocysis), • building and breaking large molecules (carbs, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids) Aerobic Anaerobic O2 REQUIREDNO O2 REQUIRED most organisms- plants animals (yeast/bacteria) 2 ATP 2ATP 32 ATP =36ATP 2 ATP Glycolysis, Krebs cycle, ETC Alcoholic & Lactic Acid Fermentation- soreness ***Steps of CR • Glycolysis –breaks glucose into pyruvate in cytoplasm, makes 2 ATP • Krebs- Pyruvate broken down in mitochondria, makes 2 ATP • ETC- oxygen boost used to make 32 ATP TOTAL= 36ATP Adenosine Energy from food Energy for cellular processes

Cell Division • Haploid –set of chromosomes (n) – gametes – sperm/egg (23) • Diploid two sets of chromosomes (2n) – body cells/somatic – one set (46) is maternal and one is paternal • The cell cycle – Interphase – growth - Mitosis – division • Mitosis creates identical daughter cells • tissue repair and growth and reproduction in animals (somatic cells, body cells, eye, liver…) • Stages of the cell cycle – • Interphase-growth preparations , S phase- DNA rep • Prophase- chromosomes condense/visible • Metaphase- chromosomes in middle • Anaphase- chromosomes separate • Telophase- cell pinches in, • Cytokinesis- cell divides and have 2 identical daughter cells. Same kind & # of chromosomes ***Mitosis in Plants- CELL PLATE produced in Telophase. No pinching in • Meiosis – cell division that creates 4 genetically different cells called gametes (sex cells/egg or sperm) Meiosis involves 2 divisions – Meiosis I and Meiosis II • Meiosis I-Prophase I crossing over occurs. This recombination increases genetic variation for the species ***Homologous chromosomes separate • Meiosis II- Sister chromatids separate

DNA, RNA, and Protein Synthesis Watson and Crick – DNA is Double Helix DNA and RNA are composed of nucleotides DNA RNA Deoxyribose Ribose A-T C-G A-U C-G Thymine (T) Uracil (U) Double helix Single helix Codes for Copy of DNA info proteins/RNA • Replication–copies DNA – enzyme unzips DNA and each side of the ladder acts as a template for the building of the new half. Use the N-base paring rules : A-T ; C-G EX) TACGGAC (old strand) ATGCCTG (new strand ***Transcription – the process of making RNA from DNA in nucleus EX) TACGGAC (template DNA strand) AUGCCUG (RNA built) (A-U C-G) • mRNA – messenger from DNA to ribosome to make a specific protein 2) tRNA – transfer - carries amino acids to ribosome- truck 3) rRNA – ribosomal – makes up a ribosome ***Translation– tRNA carries amino acids to the ribosome to assemble a Protein/polypeptide TRANSCRIPTION transcription translation DNA mRNA Protein   TRANSLATION ribosome nucleus

Mutations • ANY CHANGE IN DNA SEQUENCE THAT CAN LEAD TO A CHANGE IN AMINO ACID SEQUENCE • Some good- better immune system, be antibiotic resistant, camouflage • Some Bad- cancer- leukemia • Some neutral- eye color TYPES OF MUTATIONS ONLY MUTATIONS/CHANGESTO PARENTAL GAMETE DNA CAN BE TRANSFERRED TO OFFSPRING • Nondisjunction – having abnormal • chromosome number s • abnormal separation of chromosomes Ex) Down’s Syndrome aka Trisomy 21 XX/xx- female- sex chromosomes are the same size Xx- male- sex chromosomes are different sizes substitution • Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes • 1st 22 are homologous or autosomes • 23 pair are sex chromosomes Sex chromosomes

Reproduction • Reproduction is a characteristic of life • Continues a species- allows genetic diversity,, meiosis, crossing over • 2 forms: asexual and sexual Asexual Sexual____________ -1 parent -2 parents (usually) -No gametes -genetic variation, crossing over -Offspring are genetically identical -Offspring genetically unique to the parent (clones) -Fast, efficient, less energy -Slower, less efficient, more energy -No variation -Huge amounts of variation -Stable Environment -Changing Environment • Asexual Strategies Sexual strategies 1) binary fission-bacteria 1) Internal fertilization sperm meets egg in female 2) External fertilization released into the environment usually aquatic 2) budding

Simple Genetics • Gregor Mendel – Father of Genetics worked with pea plants to learn inheritance of traits • Phenotype – physical - tall, green eyes, no horns • Genotype – the gene combination – either Homozygous (TT or tt) or Heterozygous (Tt) Monohybrid Cross – follows 1 trait through several generations P(parental) TT x tt **one dominant over the other; same letter (T & t) T T T t t geno- all Tt T geno – ¼ TT, ½ Tt, ¼ tt t pheno – all tall t pheno – ¾ Tall; ¼ short (3:1 ratio) Other important monohybrid crosses T t T t T geno- ½ TT; ½ Tt t geno – ½ Tt; ½ tt T pheno – all Tall t pheno– Tall; ½ short • Dihybrid cross – follows two traits RRYy X Rryy= all offfspring will have round seeds Note 9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio

Complex Genetics • Incomplete Dominance – blended phenotype Ex) snap dragons  Red (RR) X White (WW’)  all Pink (RW) R R R W W geno- all RW R geno- ¼ RR; ½ RW; ¼ WW W pheno-all pink W pheno- ¼red; ½ pink; ¼ white • Codominance – both parental phenotypes show up in offspring Ex) Chickens  Black x White Black and White feathers W B W W • Multiple Alleles– trait with 3+ alleles ex) A, B, O blood types • Sex Linked– genes carried on sex chromosomes Ex) hemophilia, color blindness Cross shows a carrier female and a normal male. For a female to inherit the trait the father must have it and the mother must at least be a carrier B B B W geno- ¼ BB; ½ BW; ¼ WW Pheno- ¼ black; ½ bl&wht; ¼ wht geno- all BW Pheno- all bl & wht

Evolution- genetic change over time within a population • Charles Darwin – FATHER OF EVOLUTION, proposed that organisms (species or populations) change over time after studying finches in the Galapagos Islands • Natural Selection – “survival of the fittest”- can survive and reproduce in the environment they live in • Evidence of Evolution 1) Fossils (geologic time) 2) Homologous Structures – same basic structure formed from same embryonic tissue- **shows common ancestry 3) Vestigial Structures – structures that have lost function ex) Appendix Tailbone, femur bone in whale 4) Embryology – embryos of various species appear identical until DNA becomes more specialized 5) Genetics – DNA and protein amino acid sequence comparisons- ** most accurate in relatedness- DNA or A.A. sequence 6)Adaptive radiation /Descent w/Modifications– an ancestral species radiates or diverges into many species. Ex) Galapagos Finches Homologous Vestigial

Classification broadest • Carolus Linnaeus – Father of Taxonomy and Classification • ***King Philip Came Over For Grape Soda • Binomial nomenclature – uses Genus and species to name an organism • Dichotomous keys – a series of paired statements that lead to the name of an organism • Taxonomy- study of classifying an organism Most specific • Archaebacteria – are extremists that live in hot, acidic, saline, or other harsh environments; extremophiles • Eubacteria are “true” bacteria – strept, E. coli…..etc

Bacteria vs Virus Bacteria Virus • NOT living • NOT a cell • Prevented with VACCINES • PROTEIN CAPSID holds DNA or RNA • Needs/hijacks HOST to replicate • Used for research • Stored for possible germ warfare or natural epidemics • FLU- influenza • HIV- destroys helper T cells • Herpes, Chicken Pox • Viruses < bacteria cells<eukaryote cells • PROkaryote • NO nucleus/NO nuclear membrane • UNIcellular • LIVING cell • Autotroph or heterotroph • Cured with antiobiotics • cell wall • Eubacteria- true bacteria- streptococcus, E. coli • Archaebacteria- old Extremophiles, halophiles, thermophiles • DECOMPOSER • Aids in digestion • Breaks down in NITROGEN CYCLE • PREvention- heat, soap, cook food • Refrigerate • Antibiotic resistant- does not respond to antibiotics Pathogen- any disease causing agent Immune response- how body response to disease Outbreak- spreading of a disease flagella cilia

Plants • Plant cell structure – cell walls, large vacuole, chloroplasts • Autotrophs(Photosynthesis), eukaryotic, multicellular, cell wall of cellulose • Nonvascular – no true roots/stems/leaves – ex) mosses (Bryophytes) 2) Vascular with seeds in cones – Gymnosperms (pines, fir, spruce) “GYM” 3) Vascular with seeds in fruits – Angiosperms – flowering plants “Angie” • Types of Vascular Tissue A) Xylem – transports water from roots to leaves B) Phloem – transports sugars from leaves to roots 5) Adaptations- Large leafs plants- catch what sunlight they can/very little sun exposure- jungle, tropical rainforest -Small leaf plants- small surface area to catch sunlight because exposed to sun -Fibrous roots- get water from surface/ top soil Taproot- extends down in ground to absorb deep ground water -Cuticle- waxy covering on plant leaves to prevent water loss or to soggy – Desert or Tropical rainforest- lipids hydrophobic 6)Tropisms – growth responses to stimuli – often controlled by hormones. Phototropism Gravitropism Thigmotropism

Animals • – no cell wall, small vacuoles, no chloroplast, cellular respiration for Energy • Heterotrophs, Multicellular, no cell wall, mobile, eukaryote • Classification – 2 main groups Vertebrates Invertebrates Phylum Chordata fish Arthropods – insects (6 legs) Amphibians (exoskeleton) - arachnids (8 legs) Reptiles - crustaceans Aves (birds) Mollusks – have shell created by Mammals structure called mantel Human Anatomy – Look through the chapters in your book regarding anatomy. * Neurons- nerves * circulatory- veins /arteries- transport O2, CO2, glucose, hormones * Endocrine- hormones * Reproductive- ovaries- eggs testes- sperm MEIOSIS genetic variation * Muscular- many mitochondria Animal Behavior – responses that allow an organism to respond to stimuli 1) Innate Behavior – instincts, inherited, inborn behaviors ex) circadian rhythms – daily patterns of activity – including feeding behaviors - nocturnal ex) annual rhythms – yearly patterns of activity – including courtship, estivation, hibernation, migration 2) Learned Behavior – based on experience ex) imprinting – recognition of parents ex) Trial and error learning ex) Conditioning (Pavlov’s dog) – learning by association 3) Social Behavior – division of labor as in a termite or ant colony

Human Systems System function major structures

Homeostasis- Positive & Negative Feedback Loops • Sensor - detects the change (body is getting too warm) • Control Center - receives signal (usually the brain) from sensor and sends message to effector • Effector - reverses the initial change (skin pores begin to perspire and blood vessels dilate) Homeostasis depends on the action and interaction of body systems to maintain a balance in the body. • Body responds to an extreme condition by working towards going back to homeostasis

Biologists • Robert Hooke – discovered and named the cell with crude microscope • Anton van Leeuwenhoek - saw “wee little beasties” living cells for the first time • Gregor Mendel – is the father of genetics – discovered the basic patterns of inheritance in pea plants • Charles Darwin – is the father of evolution proposed that organisms that are most fit or best adapted to their environment are more likely to survive – called Natural Selection • James Watson and Francis Crick – discovered the double helix structure of DNA • Linnaeus- Father of Taxonomy and Classification -----Kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species ----King Phillip Came Over For Grape Soda

Biology EOC Review