Conditioning & Learning

1. Conditioning & Learning Table of Contents Exit

2. Cornell Notes Encouraged • Learning • Reinforcement • Response • Association • Stimulus • Habituation

3. Learning: Key Terms to know • Learning: Relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience • Does NOT include temporary changes due to disease, injury, maturation, or drugs, since these do NOT qualify as learning even though they can alter behavior • Reinforcement: Any event that increases the probability that a response will recur • Response: Any identifiable behavior • Internal: Faster heartbeat • Observable: Eating, scratching Table of Contents Exit

4. How do we learn? • We learn by making associations. This is connecting events that occur one after another. These events can be good, like connecting the birthday song to eating cake, or bad like seeing a flash of lightning then hearing loud thunder. • If a stimulus occurs normally in an environment, an animal’s natural response may dwindle. This lessening of a response is called habituation. Think of the stimulus as becoming habit, so why respond to it?http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Kfu0FAAu-10&feature=fvwrel • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dlilZh60qdA • The examples above illustrate associative learning.

5. Classical Conditioning and Ivan Pavlov • Russian physiologist who studied digestion • Used dogs to study salivation when dogs were presented with meat powder • Reflex: Automatic, non-learned response • http://www.bing.com/videos/search?q=youtube+classical+conditioning+Ivan+Pavlov&mid=8405CFEC2DDFB03E88218405CFEC2DDFB03E8821&view=detail&FORM=VIRE1 Table of Contents Exit

6. Pavlov theory applied elsewhere • http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=endscreen&v=nE8pFWP5QDM&NR=1 • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HfTTm-rgFFI

7. Fig. 8.1In classical conditioning, a stimulus that does not produce a response is paired with a stimulus that does elicit a response. After many such pairings, the stimulus that previously had no effect begins to produce a response. In the example shown, a horn precedes a puff of air to the eye. Eventually the horn alone will produce an eye blink. In operant conditioning, a response that is followed by a reinforcing consequence becomes more likely to occur on future occasions. In the example shown, a dog learns to sit up when it hears a whistle Table of Contents Exit

8. Fig. 8.2 An apparatus for Pavlovian conditioning. A tube carries saliva from the dog’s mouth to a lever that activates a recording device (far left). During conditioning, various stimuli can be paired with a dish of food placed in front of the dog. The device pictured here is more elaborate than the one Pavlov used in his early experiments. Table of Contents Exit

9. Fig. 8.3 The classical conditioning procedure. Table of Contents Exit

10. Fig. 8.5 Higher order conditioning takes place when a well-learned conditioned stimulus is used as if it were an unconditioned stimulus. In this example, a child is first conditioned to salivate to the sound of a bell. In time, the bell will elicit salivation. At that point, you could clap your hands and then ring the bell. Soon, after repeating the procedure, the child would learn to salivate when you clapped your hands Table of Contents Exit

11. Older Brother shooting his younger brother with toy gun instills fear to brother with quack sound • UCS = Toy gun/shooting • UCR = Fear • CS = Quack + UCS = toy gun/shooting + UCR = Fear/hands up

12. Principles of Classical Conditioning • Acquisition: Training period when a response is strengthened • Higher Order Conditioning: A conditioned stimulus (CS) is used to reinforce further learning • Expectancy: Expectation about how events are interconnected • Extinction: Weakening of a conditioned response through removal of reinforcement • Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of a learned response following apparent extinction Table of Contents Exit

13. You and a partner Create an acquisition and break up the conditioning responses • Acquisition (scenario/training period) • UCS = • UCR = • CS(NS) = + UCS = + UCR = • Part 2 Read article Trauma as Classical Conditioning Break up conditioning responses

14. Trauma as Classical Conditioning • Read the article identify • NS • CS • UCR • UCS • How long was the extinction period? • How may spontaneous Recovery occur?

15. Building on Pavlov’s work, John B. Watson became the second well-known classical conditioning behaviorist. Watson worked with a baby known as Little Albert, an average baby. Watson knew that babies/people have a natural fear of sudden, loud sounds. Also, babies do not have a fear of white rats. Watson associated the two. Watson placed a white rat next to Albert. Albert wanted to touch the rat. As he reached out, Watson banged a hammer on metal just behind Albert. Albert was scared and cried. This was repeated over and over. 4.Finally, the white rat and banging sound were associated. Merely the sight of the rat caused Albert to cry. 1.UCS = banging sound, UCR = crying 2.CS = white rat, CR = crying 5.In this demonstration, there were definitely ethical problems here. Specifically, the APA’s suggestion of “informed consent” wasn’t met. Though Albert’s mother gave the okay, he certainly didn’t. 1.After resigning in a scandal (where he eventually married his assistant), Watson went on to work for Maxwell House and start the “coffee break”.

16. Watson con’t • As he reached out, Watson banged a hammer on metal just behind Albert. Albert was scared and cried. This was repeated over and over. • Finally, the white rat and banging sound were associated. Merely the sight of the rat caused Albert to cry. • 1.UCS = banging sound, UCR = crying • 2.CS = white rat, CR = crying

17. Ethics • In this demonstration, there were definitely ethical problems here. Specifically, the APA’s suggestion of “informed consent” wasn’t met. Though Albert’s mother gave the okay, he certainly didn’t. • After resigning in a scandal (where he eventually married his assistant), Watson went on to work for Maxwell House and start the “coffee break”. • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LVJMhk4oANM

18. Review Homework • Peer Grade

19. Fig. 8.4 Acquisition and extinction of a conditioned response. (after Pavlov, 1927). Table of Contents Exit

20. Terms • Stimulus Generalization • Stimulus Discrimination

21. Principles of Classical Conditioning (cont.)Write down terms • Stimulus Generalization: A tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar, but not identical, to a conditioned stimulus (e.g., responding to a buzzer or a hammer banging when the conditioning stimulus was a bell) • Stimulus Discrimination: The ability to respond differently to various stimuli (e.g., Rudy will respond differently to various bells (alarms, school, timer)) Table of Contents Exit

22. Fig. 8.6 (a) Stimulus generalization. Stimuli similar to the CS also elicit a response. (b) This cat has learned to salivate when it sees a cat food box. Because of stimulus generalization, it also salivates when shown a similar-looking detergent box.Give and Example of a stimulus Generalization and Stimulus Discrimination on paper with partner Table of Contents Exit

23. Packet part 3 and 4 in group • Switch papers/peer grade • Random Tables will be selected for answers

24. New Terms to know • Operant Conditioning • Law of Effect • Skinner’s box • Molding • Operant Extinction • Reinforcements ( positive, negative, punishment, fixed ratio & interval, variable ratio & interval, primary, secondary, continuous, intermittent)

25. Operant Conditioning (Instrumental Learning) • Definition: Learning based on the consequences of responding; we associate responses with their consequences • Law of Effect (Thorndike): The probability of a response is altered by the effect it has; responses that lead to desired effects are repeated; those that lead to undesired effects are nothttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vk6H7Ukp6To • Operant Reinforcer: Any event that follows a response and increases its likelihood of recurring Table of Contents Exit

26. Operant Conditioning (Instrumental Learning) (cont.) • Conditioning Chamber (Skinner Box): Apparatus designed to study operant conditioning in animalshttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I_ctJqjlrHA • Response-Contingent Reinforcement: Reinforcement given after a desired response occurs Table of Contents Exit

27. Fig. 8.9 The Skinner box. This simple device, invented by B. F. Skinner, allows careful study of operant conditioning. When the rat presses the bar, a pellet of food or a drop of water is automatically released. (A photograph of a Skinner box appears in Chapter 1.) Table of Contents Exit

28. Fig. 8.8 Assume that a child who is learning to talk points to her favorite doll and says either “doll,” “duh,” or “dat” when she wants it. Day 1 shows the number of times the child uses each word to ask for the doll (each block represents one request). At first, she uses all three words interchangeably. To hasten learning, her parents decide to give her the doll only when she names it correctly. Notice how the child’s behavior shifts as operant reinforcement is applied. By day 20, saying “doll” has become the most probable response. Table of Contents Exit

29. Shaping-Method of Successive Approximations • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OCUWHP4YDgU • Shaping: Molding responses gradually in a step-by-step fashion to a desired pattern (write an example) • BF Skinner used his skinner box to reinforce desirable behavior in pigeons. This was known as shaping.

30. Fig. 8.10 Reinforcement and human behavior. The percentage of times that a severely disturbed child said “Please” when he wanted an object was increased dramatically by reinforcing him for making a polite request. Reinforcement produced similar improvements in saying “Thank you” and “You’re welcome,” and the boy applied these terms in new situations as well. (Adapted from Matson et al., 1990 Table of Contents Exit

31. Operant conditioning Used to train pigeons to ping-pong • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vGazyH6fQQ4

32. Superstitious behavior • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X6zS7v9nSpo • Superstitious Behaviors: Behaviors that are repeated because they appear to produce reinforcement, even though it is not necessary (write an example)

33. Operant Extinction • Definition: When learned responses that are NOT reinforced gradually fade away • Negative Attention Seeking: Using misbehavior to gain attention Table of Contents Exit

34. Primary vs. Secondary

35. Types of Reinforcers • Primary Reinforcer: Non-learned and natural; satisfies biological needs (e.g., food, water, sex) • Intracranial Stimulation (ICS): Natural primary reinforcer; involves direct activation of brain’s “pleasure centers” • Secondary Reinforcer: Learned reinforcer (e.g., money, grades, approval, praise) • Token Reinforcer: Tangible secondary reinforcer (e.g., money, gold stars, poker chips and for example, in a Skinner Box, rats learned that pulling the lever (conditioned reinforcer) gave some food (primary reinforce). • Social Reinforcer: Provided by other people (e.g., learned desires for attention and approval) Table of Contents Exit

36. Fig. 8.15 Poker chips normally have little or no value for chimpanzees, but this chimp will work hard to earn them once he learns that the “Chimp-O-Mat” will dispense food in exchange for them.Primary or Secondary Reinforcement? Table of Contents Exit

37. More Operant Conditioning Terms(complete part 6) • Positive Reinforcement: When a response is followed by a reward or other positive event • Negative Reinforcement: When a response is followed by the removal of an unpleasant event (e.g., the bells in Fannie’s car stop when she puts the seatbelt on); ends discomfort • Punishment: Any event that follows a response and decreases the likelihood of it recurring (e.g., a spanking) • Response Cost: Reinforcer or positive thing is removed, e.g., losing X-Box privileges Table of Contents Exit

38. 2 Main Types of Reinforcers-anything that increases a preceding response • 1.Positive reinforcement STRENGTHENS a response with a pleasurable stimulus after a response. • Simply, if you do what’s wanted, you get a doggie treat! • For example, a dog sits and you give him a piece of a hot dog. This increases the likelihood he’ll sit. • 2.Negative reinforcement STRENGHTHENS a response by removing something unpleasant. • Simply, you do something to make something bad go away. • For example, you hit the snooze button to make the annoying sound stop. This increases the likelihood you’ll hit it again. • 3.It’s important to remember, negative reinforcement is not punishment. • Negative reinforcement encourages a behavior by removing something bad. • Punishment discourages a behavior by adding something bad

39. Schedules of reinforcement try to answer questions like, “When should the reinforce be given, every time? Some times?” • Continuous reinforcement occurs when the reinforcement is given every time the behavior is down. (grade for a test) • Partial or intermittent reinforcement occurs when the reinforcement is not given after every behavior.(journals daily check)

40. Partial or intermittent reinforcement …(complete part 7) • Fixed Ratio – reinforcer is given after a set number of behaviors. • Think of being paid for every 10 units you make on an assembly line. • Variable ratio – reinforcer is given after a random number of behaviors. • Think of pulling a slot machine handle, you never know which pull will win. • Fixed interval – reinforcer is given after a set time period. • Think of being paid every Friday. • Variable interval – reinforcer is given after a random time period. • Think of watching a bob-cork and waiting for a fish to bite.

41. What to know… • Differentiate between operant, classical and observational learning. • Modeling & mirror neurons • Latent learning • Cognitive Map • Insight learning & Aha moment • Abstract Learning • Taste Aversion

42. Operant conditioning vs. classical conditioning • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wEDJF5u3inY

43. Learning is more specific than what we think of learning in school…to a psychologist, there are 3 main types of learning: • Classical conditioning occurs when we associate two stimuli and thus expect result. • Operant conditioning occurs when we learn to associate our own behavior (or our response) and its consequence. We therefore repeat behaviors with good results, we cut down on behaviors with bad results. • Observational learning occurs by watching others’ experiences. • One additional form of learning is through language. In this way, we can learn without experiencing something or watching someone else experience it.

44. Contrasting classical and operant conditioning 1.The differences between classical and operant conditioning can be summarized as… • 1.Classical conditioning • Links two stimuli together through association. • Involves a natural, biological response. There is no decision made – Pavlov’s dogs salivated naturally, biologically, with no decision of their own. • 2.Operant conditioning • Links a behavior to its results. • There is a decision made here to do or not do a behavior. Behavior that gets reinforced is more likely to be repeated.

45. Fig. 8.7 Hypothetical example of a CER becoming a phobia. Child approaches dog (a) and is frightened by it (b). Fear generalizes to other household pets (c) and later to virtually all furry animals (d). Table of Contents Exit

46. Observation Learning • We can learn by watching others through what’s called observational learning. This is learned by observing others or learning without direct experience. • 1.In modeling, we learn by watching and mimicking others. • 2.We have mirror neurons that “fire” in the brain when we watch someone else doing an action. It’s as though we’re actually doing it, but we’re just observing it. • 1.Mirror neurons improve our empathy for others. It helps us to feel others’ pain. • 2.More concrete examples are how we imitate others when they yawn or how it’s difficult to smile when looking at a frown, or vice versa.

47. Fig. 8.25 A nursery school child imitates the aggressive behavior of an adult model he has just seen in a movie. (Photos courtesy of Albert Bandura.) Table of Contents Exit

48. Bandura’s Experiment • 1.Albert Bandura is the top name in observational learning. • 2.He is most famous for the Bobo doll experiment. • 1.In this experiment, a child watched an adult beat up an inflatable clown. The adult yelled things like, “Take that!” in the process. • 2.The children were then placed into a “play room” and mimicked the adult by beating up the Bobo doll with almost the exact same actions and words as the adult model. • 3.Children who had not observed the adult were less aggressive to the doll. • 3.Bandura felt that we… • 1.Imitate based on reinforcements and punishments that we see others get (or don’t get). • 2.Will imitate people like us, who we see as successful, or who we see as admirable. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zerCK0lRjp8

49. Observation Learning (example) • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AyZQ--Am-3w&feature=endscreen&NR=1 Albert Bandura - bobo doll experiment

50. Vicarious Classical Conditioning: Learning to respond emotionally to a stimulus by observing another’s emotional reactionshttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-RGBdtSw7g8