Politics and the 1920s

1. Politics and the 1920s EQs: How did the economic and political disorder of post-WWI impact Europe? What political ideas did certain European states use to restart their nations? How did this turmoil cause future conflict (WWII)?

2. New Governments, New Demands, Same Old Problems • The new governments that developed in post-WWI Europe became wholly responsible for their people (hence their ultimate failures at the end of this decade) • Most of these governments had very few individuals who were experienced enough to deal with the post war issues of poverty, social injustice, unemployment • The Treaty of Versailles itself (Paris Settlement) further complicated issues as it humiliated Germany and forced all Germans to pay for what their government had done…many German politicians ran on platforms against the treaty policies (further jingoism by Germany) and even politicians in France and Britain ran on platforms that the harsh directives of the peace treaty were not enough, that the government should be doing more to punish Germany • The other major issue was economics…the war had all but taxed the European industrial structure (particularly its labor force and many of its consumers)…the US had surpassed Europe at the end of WWI and had begun selling its products in the European markets…this led European nations, particularly toward the end of the 1920s to start throwing up huge tariffs in an effort to rebuild their industries (rather than rebuilding them to be competitive)…you know the result of this mistake!

3. The Soviet Experiment • War Communism • The Red Army needed to purge from Russia the White Russian resistance…the new Bolshevik government used military force to bolster its position • The use of military force helped develop authoritarian rule…soldiers became members of a secret police (Cheka) which spied on the people…administration of the government became highly centralized…the military/secret police confiscated banks, factories and land from private interests • The most detrimental impact was the repression that was heaped upon the peasants and working class…in the short term, War Communism helped lead the Red Army to victory, but it caused strikes and rebellions as ordinary people resisted its harshness • The New Economic Policy (NEP) • Once victory had been assured, Lenin switched tact to please the masses…the NEP allowed for some private enterprise to take place in Russia to help peasants gain some wealth for the food they had been “giving away” during War Communism • The NEP was a useless gesture, because once the money was earned, there was literally nothing for the peasants to spend it on

4. Joseph versus Leon • Lenin suffered a stroke in 1922…he died in 1924…this caused a struggle for power • Trotsky, the left wing, called for rapid industrialization through collectivization of farming (peasants pay for industrial development)…he also believed Russia needed outside help AND needed to spread revolutionary ideas elsewhere • Stalin, the right wing, believed in continued brutality, no outside help in Russia (“socialism in one country”), Russia as a self-sufficient state…he opposed rapid industrialization in favor of increased agricultural production and slower industrial development • By 1927, Trotsky had lost favor in the Communist Party for being too impulsive…in1929 he was exiled from Russia…in 1940 he was assassinated in Mexico (most likely by one of Stalin’s agents)

5. Communism: Abroad and with Broads • Socialists in other European countries at the time saw the Bolsheviks in Russia as extremists…most socialists elsewhere sought change thru parliamentary procedure rather than calling for outright revolution • To react, Bolsheviks created the 3rd International, a.k.a. the Comintern (sort of a Communist U.N.)…the goal was simple, to create socialist parties outside of Russia that were similar to the Bolshevik party • The Comintern was limited in its success…socialist parties became divided on whether or not to take up the Bolshevik mantra…in some countries the direct result was the creation of “other political movements (Fascism and Nazism) • As for women, under a communist regime, equality was practically a guarantee (though not an absolute)…divorces were easy to get, single women were not discriminated against, they could hold jobs • Women also could gain positions in government (though were not impactful) and education was compulsory…YET, women still received less pay, still had to be domestic even when working and still had to cope with the absolute lack of consumer goods in the USSR

6. Fascism Comes to Italy • Fascism…it has no clear definition as a political term…but to be Fascist meant: • 1. You are Anti-Democratic • 2. Anti-Communist • 3. Anti-Parliamentarian • 4. Anti-Semitic • 5. VERY Nationalist • 6. Supported the Middle Class • 7. Rejected Liberalism • 8. You like pina coladas and getting caught in the rain • 9. You liked to make speeches and persuade • The party formed in Italy in 1919…it was founded as the Fasci di Combattimento or “Bands of Combat”…it was mostly made up of disillusioned Italian war vets who felt Italy was cheated by the post WWI peace process • It was led by Il Duce himself, Benito Mussolini…(Biography this week)

7. Fascism Comes to Italy • WWI created a climate ripe for political change in Italy…Parliament was all but non-existent during the war…the Peace process treated Italy like a little child…Italy did not gain territories it felt it had the right to (like Fiume on the NE Adriatic) • Italy was also experiencing a “Red Scare”…there was great upheaval in the industrial sector…the Socialist Party gained power in recent elections and a new Catholic Popular Party gained the favor of workers and farmers…neither party worked together • The Fascists and Mussolini played off on these rivalries…at first they supported workers’ causes…but when the upper classes felt threatened by Socialism, he switched course and supported authoritarian social justice…while parties were inept, the Fascists used terror tactics to end strikes and force people back to work • In October 1922 the Fascists marched on Rome…King Victor Emmanuel did not nothing to prevent their march…he even later that month invited Mussolini to be Prime Minister

8. Fascism Comes to Italy • So, Mussolini was like totally surprised he was appointed Prime Minister…none-the-less, he took advantage of his new power…he made sure fellow Fascists were appointed to key positions • Then, in late 1922, he was granted dictatorial power for one year…he changed the elections laws to benefit the election of his party (25% = 2/3 the seats in an electoral region) • By 1926, he succeeded in having all other political parties dissolved in Italy…and yet, their tact did not change…the Fascist party still used terror and intimidation…it also developed a cult of personality for Benito, through his vastly superior oratory skills and intelligently articulate speeches • The other coup for Mussolini was his pact with the Catholic Church…the Lateran Accord of 1929 pacified the age old quarrel between the Italian State and the Papacy…the state agreed to pay for confiscated church lands, recognized Catholicism as a state religion and gave specific power to the church (over marriage in particular) • And in women’s issues, Fascism promoted domesticity and lots of children for the good of the Italian state…women were allowed to work w/o persecution (25% of the labor force was female) but the government still actively discouraged it in favor of the domestic role

9. Post War France • France was on uncertain ground after World War I…there was no great political upheaval…the only real change was they did not re-elect WWI French President Georges Clemenceau since he failed to regain territory in the Rhineland (post-war)…France literally saw 27 different forms of governance between 1919 and 1933 • France made a Little Entente with several Eastern European nations (Czechoslovakia, Romania and Yugoslavia)…it was a paper tiger in a sense since none of these allies was any more powerful help prevent another German attack…what’s worse, the Germans made a treaty with Soviet Russia (exchange of army training for Soviet built military equipment) • France also was busy in the 1920s hounding Germany for war reparations…Germany by 1923 had not been doing a good job repaying so France occupied German industry and German mines in the Ruhr industrial region…the Germans responded by stopping working, further confounding the issue • France paid the price for its constant demands…they angered England and eventually caused the French franc on the market to become inflated…despite these issues, France still managed some measure of prosperity

10. Post War Britain • The political system saw great change/fluctuation…the Labour Party grew much stronger in England as other parties became divided…the Labour Party benefitted by the inclusion into the electorate of all men aged 21 and over and all women (at first 30 & over, later 21 & over) • The Labour Party used socialist reform under the leadership of PM Ramsay MacDonald…his government was short lived when the party failed to prosecute a communist…the Conservatives came back to power • The Conservatives compounded Britain’s problem’s further by raising the value of the pound, in a sense, making their goods more expensive compared to other nations…to compete, they cut wages, particularly impacting the coal industry…a general workers strike broke out across Britain that had little impact.

11. Post War Britain • Ireland became another problem for Britain…they had granted Ireland home rule in 1914 but postponed enacting it until the end of WWI…the Irish couldn’t wait and began a revolution in 1916 led by the Sinn Fein (Ourselves Alone) Party…they declared Ireland an independent republic in 1919 and fought guerilla warfare against the British for the next 2 years • A series of secret negotiations in 1921 created the Irish Free State as a dominion/commonwealth, with the northern counties of Ireland remaining directly controlled by Britain…still, war erupted again in 1923 between radicals in Ireland and the British…the Irish issue was not completely resolved until after WWII

12. Post War Other Europe • There were many challenges for other NEWER states post WWI… • What type of government do we create? • Most were determined to create parliamentary governments and repel Bolshevik socialism…the concern was how long liberals could experiment with ideas before conservatives in each state re-asserted absolutist power • How are we going to financially sustain ourselves? • Most new nations (except Czechoslovakia) had no capital, they had to rely on other nations to loan money or buy their resources (most agricultural exports) which were beginning to be devalued • Most important were the continued nationalist animosities between states • Some refused to trade with each other over ethnic differences (ex. Greece and Bulgaria) • Some still had minority groups who desired greater independence or a state of their own (Yugoslavia)

13. Post War Other Europe • Poland • Poland was recreated in 1919 for the first time in almost 200 years…it as a new nation was plagued by regionalism and agrarian/industrial differences (north/south)…the previous partition of Poland had divided loyalties to the previous nations that controlled those areas (Germany, Austria, Russia)…a weak parliamentary government ruled until a military coup in 1926 • Czechoslovakia • This was the one real success story…the Czechs developed a strong liberal democratic government built on mutual trust between nationalities at first, but as time progressed, division grew between the industrial Czechs and the agrarian Slovaks…it would take Hitler in 1938 to quell the tension, with a temporary (then) split of both groups, as Germany took over the Czech portion

14. Post War Other Europe • Hungary • Hungary achieved its long desired separation from Austria as a consequence of losing in WWI, but not w/o cost…Hungary lost territory to Romania, Czechoslovakia and Russia that was important for agriculture • There were also variations in government…at first the Communists came to power in Hungary, only to be quickly removed…the Conservatives were put in control under the leadership of Milos Horthy, who ruled as a military dictator…Hungary was a land of fear and anti-Semitism thereafter as ethnic minorities began to be persecuted and purged • Austria • Believe it or not, Austria saw no better a result after WWI…it was not allowed to merge in any union with Germany…like in Italy, Austrian parties (Social Democrats and Conservative Christian Socialists) used terror tactics against people (workers, farmers, etc.)…eventually many parties became outlawed except the Christian Socialists…Austria remained in general disarray until Hitler annexed it in the Anschluss of 1938

15. The Weimar Republic • Democracy’s most important test, and one crucial for the future of Western Europe came in Germany • At Weimar in 1919, a new constitution was written…while the constitution was created, the Social Democrats who had taken over the government had accepted the humiliating terms of the Versailles Treaty • The new constitution had many flaws: • It allowed proportional representation an fragmented Germany into dozens of small political factions • Chancellors and ministers were responsible to the Reichstag (composed of these many factions) • The biggest flaw was the emergency power provided to the president/chancellor allowing him to become a dictator in times of emergency (how Hitler rose to power) • There was a lack of support for the new German republic • No one was loyal to the new government as it did nothing to cure social issues • The military was deeply resentful of the new government, which blamed them for the heavy burdens of the resulting treaty (reparations)

16. The Weimar Republic • A brief period of prosperity and growth occurred under the leadership of Gustav Stresemann • The previous government had resisted the French invasion of the Ruhr region by calling for general strikes…this caused inflation…Stresemann reacted by ending the strikes and combating the inflation by creating a new German currency…he also successfully negotiated changes to the WWI reparations w/the US (Dawes Plan) • Stresemann’s successor Paul von Hindenburg invited foreign capital into Germany to create jobs for workers • The subsequent Locarno Agreements of 1925 created a western border for Germany with France and the Benelux • All parties (Germany and the rest of the West) signed the Kellogg-Briand Pact of 1928 which outlawed war forever in Europe