Chapter 1

1. Chapter 1 Introduction to Statistics Larson/Farber 4th ed.

2. Chapter Outline • 1.1 What is Statistics? • 1.2 Random Samples • 1.3 Experimental Design Larson/Farber 4th ed.

3. Section 1.1 What is Statistics? Larson/Farber 4th ed.

4. Section 1.1 Objectives • Define statistics • Define individual/observational unit • Distinguish between a population and a sample • Distinguish between a parameter and a statistic • Distinguish between descriptive statistics and inferential statistics • Distinguish between levels of measurement Larson/Farber 4th ed.

5. What is Data? Larson/Farber 4th ed.

6. What is Data? Data Consist of information coming from observations, counts, measurements, or responses. Statements are often based on data: • “People who eat three daily servings of whole grains have been shown to reduce their risk of…stroke by 37%.” (Source: Whole Grains Council) • “Seventy percent of the 1500 U.S. spinal cord injuries to minors result from vehicle accidents, and 68 percent were not wearing a seatbelt.” (Source: UPI) Larson/Farber 4th ed.

7. What is Statistics? Larson/Farber 4th ed.

8. What is Statistics? Statistics The science of collecting, organizing, analyzing, and interpreting data in order to make decisions. Larson/Farber 4th ed.

9. Individuals and Variables

10. Individuals and Variables Individuals are people or objects included in the study. Variables are characteristics of the individual to be measured or observed. Exercise 1: We want to do a study about the people who have climbed Mt. Everest. Identify the individuals and the variables.

11. Types of Data Qualitative Data Consists of attributes, labels, or nonnumerical entries. Major Place of birth Eye color Larson/Farber 4th ed.

12. Types of Data Quantitative data Numerical measurements or counts. Guided Ex 1: Is the data quantitative or qualitative? Age Weight of a letter Temperature Larson/Farber 4th ed.

13. Data Sets Population The collection of alloutcomes, responses, measurements, or counts that are of interest. Sample A subset of the population. Larson/Farber 4th ed.

14. Exercise 2: Identifying Data Sets In a recent survey, 1708 adults in the United States were asked if they think global warming is a problem that requires immediate government action. Nine hundred thirty-nine of the adults said yes. 1. Identify the population and the sample. 2. Describe the data set. (Adapted from: Pew Research Center) Larson/Farber 4th ed.

15. Solution: Identifying Data Sets • The population consists of the responses of all adults in the U.S. • The sample consists of the responses of the 1708 adults in the U.S. in the survey. • The sample is a subset of the responses of all adults in the U.S. • The data set consists of 939 yes’s and 769 no’s. Responses of adults in the U.S. (population) Responses of adults in survey (sample) Larson/Farber 4th ed.

16. Parameter and Statistic Parameter A number that describes a population characteristic. Average age of all people in the United States Statistic A number that describes a sample characteristic. Average age of people from a sample of three states Larson/Farber 4th ed.

17. Example: Distinguish Parameter and Statistic Decide whether the numerical value describes a population parameter or a sample statistic. A recent survey of a sample of MBAs reported that the average salary for an MBA is more than $82,000. (Source: The Wall Street Journal) Solution: Sample statistic (the average of $82,000 is based on a subset of the population) Larson/Farber 4th ed.

18. Guided Exercise 2 Decide whether the numerical value describes a population parameter or a sample statistic. Starting salaries for the 667 MBA graduates from the University of Chicago Graduate School of Business increased 8.5% from the previous year. Solution: Population parameter (the percent increase of 8.5% is based on all 667 graduates’ starting salaries) Larson/Farber 4th ed.

19. Branches of Statistics Descriptive StatisticsInvolves organizing, summarizing, and displaying data. e.g. Tables, charts, averages Inferential StatisticsInvolves using sample datato draw conclusions about a population. Larson/Farber 4th ed.

20. Example: Descriptive and Inferential Statistics Decide which part of the study represents the descriptive branch of statistics. What conclusions might be drawn from the study using inferential statistics? A large sample of men, aged 48, was studied for 18 years. For unmarried men, approximately 70% were alive at age 65. For married men, 90% were alive at age 65. (Source: The Journal of Family Issues) Larson/Farber 4th ed.

21. Solution: Descriptive and Inferential Statistics Descriptive statistics involves statements such as “For unmarried men, approximately 70% were alive at age 65” and “For married men, 90% were alive at 65.” A possible inference drawn from the study is that being married is associated with a longer life for men. Larson/Farber 4th ed.

22. Example: Classifying Data by Type The base prices of several vehicles are shown in the table. Which data are qualitative data and which are quantitative data? (Source Ford Motor Company) Larson/Farber 4th ed.

23. Solution: Classifying Data by Type Qualitative Data (Names of vehicle models are nonnumerical entries) Quantitative Data (Base prices of vehicles models are numerical entries) Larson/Farber 4th ed.

24. Levels of Measurement Nominal level of measurement • Qualitative data only • Categorized using names, labels, or qualities • No mathematical computations can be made • Example: Larson/Farber 4th ed.

25. Levels of Measurement • Ordinal level of measurement • Qualitative or quantitative data • Data can be arranged in order • Differences between data entries is not meaningful • Example: Larson/Farber 4th ed.

26. Example: Classifying Data by Level Two data sets are shown. Which data set consists of data at the nominal level? Which data set consists of data at the ordinal level?(Source: Nielsen Media Research) Larson/Farber 4th ed.

27. Solution: Classifying Data by Level Ordinal level (lists the rank of five TV programs. Data can be ordered. Difference between ranks is not meaningful.) Nominal level (lists the call letters of each network affiliate. Call letters are names of network affiliates.) Larson/Farber 4th ed.

28. Levels of Measurement Interval level of measurement • Quantitative data • Data can be ordered • Differences between data entries is meaningful • Zero represents a position on a scale (not an inherent zero – zero does not imply “none”) Example: Time of day on a 12-hour clock   Example: Body temperatures in degrees Celsius Larson/Farber 4th ed.

29. Levels of Measurement Ratio level of measurement • Zero entry is an inherent zero (implies “none”) • A ratio of two data values can be formed • One data value can be expressed as a multiple of another • Examples:  RULER: inches or centimeters ,YEARS of work experience,   INCOME: money earned last year , NUMBER of children,  GPA: grade point average, TEMPERATURE: degrees Kelvin • Person who earns $2K/ week earns twice as much as person who earns $1K / week Larson/Farber 4th ed.

30. Levels of Measurement Measurement at the interval or ratio level is desirable because we can use the more powerful statistical procedures available for Means and Standard Deviations. To have this advantage, often ordinal data are treated as though they were interval; for example, subjective ratings scales (1 = terrible, 2= poor, 3 = fair, 4 = good, 5 = excellent). Larson/Farber 4th ed.

31. Example: Classifying Data by Level Two data sets are shown. Which data set consists of data at the interval level? Which data set consists of data at the ratio level?(Source: Major League Baseball) Larson/Farber 4th ed.

32. Solution: Classifying Data by Level Interval level (Quantitative data. Can find a difference between two dates, but a ratio does not make sense.) Ratio level (Can find differences and write ratios.) Larson/Farber 4th ed.

33. : Guided Exercise 3 State the level of measurement for each of the following: Larson/Farber 4th ed.

34. Exercise 4: Summary of Four Levels of Measurement Larson/Farber 4th ed.

35. Summary of Four Levels of Measurement Larson/Farber 4th ed.

36. Section 1.2 Random Samples Larson/Farber 4th ed.

37. Section 1.2 Objectives • Explain the importance of random samples • Construct a simple random sample using random numbers • Simulate a random process • Describe stratified sampling, cluster sampling, systematic sampling, multi-stage and convenience sampling Larson/Farber 4th ed.

38. x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x Sampling Techniques Simple Random Sample • Every possible sample of the same size has the same chance of being selected. • Every individual of the population has an equal chance of being selected. Larson/Farber 4th ed.

39. Simple Random Sample • Random numbers can be generated by a random number table, a software program or a calculator. • Assign a number to each member of the population. • Members of the population that correspond to these numbers become members of the sample. Larson/Farber 4th ed.

40. Guided Ex 1: Simple Random Sample There are 731 students currently enrolled in statistics at your school. You wish to form a sample of eight students to answer some survey questions. Select the students who will belong to the simple random sample. • Assign numbers 1 to 731 to each student taking statistics. • On the table of random numbers, choose a starting place at random (suppose you start in the third row, second column.) Larson/Farber 4th ed.

41. Solution: Simple Random Sample • Read the digits in groups of three • Ignore numbers greater than 731 The students assigned numbers 719, 662, 650, 4, 53, 589, 403, and 129 would make up the sample. Larson/Farber 4th ed.

42. What is a Simulation? A simulation is a numerical facsimile or representation of a real-world phenomenon Larson/Farber 4th ed.

43. Exercise 1: Simple Random Samples • Use a random number table to simulate each of the following: • Choose the numbers for the next lottery. That is, randomly choose six numbers from 1 to 52 • The outcomes of tossing a die 20 times. Larson/Farber 4th ed.

44. Exercise 2: TI-83 Random Number Generation Larson/Farber 4th ed.

45. Exercise 3: Coin Toss Simulation using TI-83

46. Other Sampling Techniques Stratified Sample • Divide a population into groups (strata) and select a random sample from each group. • To collect a stratified sample of the number of people who live in West Ridge County households, you could divide the households into socioeconomic levels and then randomly select households from each level. Larson/Farber 4th ed.

47. Other Sampling Techniques Stratified Sample • We stratify to ensure that our sample represents different groups in the population • Result: reduced sample variability • Samples taken within a stratum vary less, so our estimates can be more precise • Example: If we stratify by sex, we can create the sample so that the proportions of men and women within our sample match the proportions in the population Larson/Farber 4th ed.

48. Other Sampling Techniques Cluster Sample • Divide the population into groups (clusters) and select all of the members in one or more, but not all, of the clusters. • In the West Ridge County example you could divide the households into clusters according to zip codes, then select all the households in one or more, but not all, zip codes. Larson/Farber 4th ed.

49. Other Sampling Techniques Cluster Sample • If each cluster represents the population fairly, cluster sampling will be unbiased. • Clusters are internally heterogeneous, each resembling the overall population. • We select clusters to make sampling more practical or affordable. Larson/Farber 4th ed.

50. Non-Random Sampling Technique Convenience Sample • One of the main types of non-probability sampling methods • Made up of people who are easy to reach • Usually not representative of population • Example: A pollster interviews shoppers at a local mall. If the mall was chosen because it was a convenient site from which to solicit survey participants, this would be a convenience sample. Larson/Farber 4th ed.