Emotional Development

Emotional Development Chapter 8

Chapter Outline • What is emotional development? • Influence of temperament on emotional development • Attachment theory • Erickson’s theory of personality development • Self-esteem and self-concept • Revision Questions

What is Emotional Development • Emotional development is the development of the ability to recognise and deal with emotions in a positive, healthy and socially acceptable way • Emotions can be classified into • (1) primary emotions e.g. joy, fear, disgust, anger, sadness and surprise and • (2) self-conscious emotions (sometimes called other-conscious emotions e.g. jealousy, shame, pride, guilt, empathy and embarrassment

Emotional Development • Primary emotions appear in the first six months • Self-conscious emotions generally do not appear until after 6 months because in order to experience these emotions the child has to have a sense of ‘self’ in relation to others • Jealousy and pride are normally the first to appear with others appearing more so towards the end of the second year

Emotional Development continued • In terms of emotional expression crying is the primary way babies under 5-6 weeks express emotion • After 6 weeks when the social smile first appears babies begin to express joy, surprise and sadness • Fear as an emotion typically appears around 6 months with the emergence of stranger anxiety • Stranger anxiety usually intensifies as the child gets older peaking at between 15 and 18 months • Closely related to stranger anxiety is separation distress or separation protest. This is when the infant gets very upset when their principle carer leaves • While patters of separation distress vary between cultures (because of variations in child minding arrangements) it usually appears from 6 months getting stronger and peaking at approximately 15 months

Emotional regulation • From early infancy babies do exhibit some emotion regulatory actions e.g. sucking their thumb, but most emotional regulation is external in nature e.g. an adult rocks and sings to a crying baby • Adults should try to soothe infants before they get into a very agitated state as this helps the infant regulate their emotions and reduces the levels of stress hormones released • Babies should not be left to cry as responding quickly to the infant in the first year of life is important for secure emotional attachments (see below) • Studies of babies who’s mothers responded promptly to them crying at 3 months cried less at a year than babies of mothers who did not respond promptly (Bell and Ainsworth, 1972)

Emotional Regulation continued • As children get older they begin to experience a wider range of emotions during their day • They begin be able to regulate their emotions more effectively, no longer relying as heavily on external regulators such as parents and carers to do so • They become better able to interpret other people’s emotional states and how to deal effectively with them e.g. how to show sympathy for another • As language emerges children begin being able to describe emotions and in this way can say how they feel about something rather than just act it out • From about 4-5 years children begin to realise that emotional regulation is necessary to meet social standards • Children who fail to regulate their emotions may experience rejection by their peers and have difficulty forming friendships

Studies of Infant Temperament • Thomas and Chess (1977) classified babies as: • Easy babies (40%) these babies are generally very positive, cry very little, and quickly get into sleep and feeding routines, they adapt well to change • Difficult babies (10%) these babies cry frequently, they are slow to get into sleep and feeding routines and do not like change • Slow to warm up babies (15%) these babies are not very active, and are often negative in terms of mood • They were unable to clearly classify 35% of the babies they studied

Importance of Temperament Studies • Whether a baby is easy or difficult may have a bearing how that baby is treated and as a result influence their emotional development • Goodness of fit is an important concept related to studies of children’s temperament

Attachment Theory • Attachment is a close emotional bond between a child and his/her carer • Strong or secure attachments are considered vital to healthy emotional development and are generally fostered in the first 2 years of life • John Bowlby (1969) argues that infants are born predisposed to form attachments. They cry, coo, smile and later crawl and walk after their carer. All of these behaviours are designed to keep their carer nearby and them safe from harm

Attachment Theory continued • Schaffer (1996) believes that attachment behaviours emerge gradually over 4 phases during the course of the first 2 years of life: • 0-2 months: The baby cries and from 5 or 6 weeks will smile (but at anyone who smiles and chats to them) • 2-7 months: The baby focuses its attachment behaviours on 1 or 2 people, known as their primary attachment figure(s) • 7-24 months: Specific attachments develop. The baby will actively seek contact with their primary attachments figures, crawling or walking after them. Separation anxiety emerges • From 24 months: Children begin to become aware of others feelings, goals and plans and start to take these into account e.g. ‘mammy has to go to work now, I’ll be back to pick you up later’

Differences in Attachment Behaviours • Mary Ainsworth (1979) studied differences in the quality of babies’ attachments to their mothers • Method: strange situation • 4 categories • Securely attached • Insecure avoidant • Insecure resistant • Insecure disorganised

Early attachments and emotional development – Harlow • Harry Harlow (1958) in a series of what would now be considered unethical experiments studied the effects of maternal deprivation on rhesus monkeys • See textbook page 151 for details

Evaluation of attachment theories • While attachment theory is widely accepted as having great significance for healthy social and emotional development aspects of attachment theory have also been criticised • the mother as sole attachment figure: • the strange situation too strange • culturally specific • finality of attachment • Despite these criticisms, secure attachments are seen as important for overall child development. It is important that children are cared for by a small number of consistent, caring adults, particularly during the first two years of life

Erikson’s theory of personality development • Erik Erikson (1968) believed that throughout the lifespan people are faced at different stages with various ‘crises’ which require resolving • If the ‘crisis’ is successfully resolved then a life-stage virtue is achieved, if not then the person suffers emotional distress • Erikson believed there to be eight psychosocial stages (his wife after his death later added a ninth stage)

Erikson’s Psychosocial stages • Hope: Basic Trust v Mistrust (0-2 years) • Will: Autonomy v Shame and Doubt (2-4 years) • Purpose: Initiative v Guilt – (4-6 years) • Competence: Industry v Inferiority (Around age 6 to puberty) • Fidelity : Identity v Role Confusion (11-19 years) • Love: Intimacy v Isolation (19-40) • Caring : Generativity v Stagnation (40-65) • Wisdom: Ego Integrity v Despair (64+)

Implications of Erikson’s theory for those caring for children • Children in childcare settings should have a key worker; someone they can form a close bond with and can rely on • It is important for children’s emotional wellbeing that crèches and pre-schools do not have a high staff turnover or high rates of staff absenteeism • Children should be encouraged to do things for themselves, e.g. spoon feed • Childcare staff should set tasks and activities at the correct level for children so that the child has a reasonable chance of succeeding at the activity with only a small amount of adult guidance. Avoid over helping children

Self-esteem and self-concept • Both self-esteem and self-concept have wide reaching implications for children’s development • Self-esteem is defined as a person’s general evaluation of themselves e.g. I am a good person • Self-concept is how a person sees themselves in specific areas e.g. Am I attractive looking? Am I good at sports, Am I good academically etc. • Both concepts are very closely linked

Measuring self esteem • For younger (6-10 years) children, measures such as Susan Harter’s (1985) Self-Perception Profile for Children have been used • It looks at five areas • (1) perceived physical appearance • (2) scholastic (academic) competence • (3) social acceptance • (4) behavioural conduct and • (5) athletic competence • Of these a child’s perception of their physical appearance is most closely linked with self esteem

Promoting children’s self esteem • Today two main problems or issues arise in relation to children’s self esteem: • (1) the old one, whereby children are not given sufficient recognition and praise for their efforts and are instead frequently run down and criticised and • (2) the new one, whereby children are praised anyway, even if what they do is an effortless, mediocre or even poor attempt • Both of these situations can cause self-esteem issues for children. Children in situation 1 may grow up with low self-esteem and children in situation 2 may grow up with inflated self-esteem, unable to cope effectively with competition or criticism

Promoting self-esteem continued • In order to promote self esteem it is important not to offer blanket, undeserved praise • Children have good levels of self esteem when they perform well in areas important to them • Children should therefore be encouraged to identify their areas of strength and work on them

Revision Questions • Define emotional development • What is separation distress? When does it generally peak? • What is emotional regulation? How does children’s ability in this area emerge? • What bearing could infant temperament have on emotional development? • In relation to parenting what is meant by ‘goodness of fit’? • Outline Bowlby’s attachment theory • Describe how Mary Ainsworth (1979) studied the differences in the quality of babies’ attachments to their mothers • Do you think her results would be valid today?

Revision Questions continued • What significance do you think Harry Harlow’s studies of maternal deprivation have for human emotional development? • Evaluate attachment theory • Children by six years have passed through three of Erikson’s psychosocial stages, outline these three stages • What implications has Erikson’s theory of personality development have for those caring for children? • Define self esteem and self concept • How is children’s self esteem best promoted?

Emotional Development