INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES PERSONALITY: History, definitions, approaches, and structure PERSONALITY: Traits in everyday life, what do they predict? PSYCHOPATHOLOGY: Abnormal behavior and mental illness INTELLIGENCE: Measurement of human abilities, IQ tests INTELLIGENCE: IQ in everyday life, what does it predict? BEHAVIOR GENETICS: Genetic and environmental influences BEYOND IQ: Searching for novel abilities (social, emotional, etc.) MOOD AND MOTIVATION: Differences within-individuals CREATIVITY: Relationship to personality and intelligence LEADERSHIP: Situational, personal, and interactional theories INTERESTS: Rediscovering the importance of vocations

Traits as general predispositions to act according to interests, values, and preferences • different people have different interests • b) different interests determine different behaviours • we are aware, as actors and observers, of these interests and behaviours • people tend to act in consistent manners

Differential Psychology: Goals and Applications abnormal behavior clinical understand performance in school Differences between individuals educational performance at work occupational predict relationships general/lay

Intelligence: individual differences in competition and adaptation • Intelligence, also known as intellectual ability, IQ, cognitive ability, or “g” (for general intelligence) • Measures an individual’s ability to adapt and solve problems • Problems can range from complex mathematical tests to simple reaction time (RT) experiments and even practical tasks • Intelligence can be broken down into minor skills or abilities • It is measured through standardised multiple-choice tests • Individual’s performance is compared to the norm (that of others’) • IQ is a powerful and widely-used tool for classification and selection of individuals • In educational and occupational settings, it has proven very effective

Figure #1.7: Genetic and environmental determinants of individual differences mother father Are similarities with our parents (e.g., personality, intelligence) inherited or “acquired”, that is, learned? Are they genetically (nature) or environmentally (nurture) determined? son daughter

Traits, motivation, mood and situational factors Traits behavior motivation mood Situational factors

Figure #1.9: Fluency and originality as indicators of creativity or creative responses Instruction: You have one minute to name all the things you could do with a chair Can you think of more uses of a chair? Which responses are more original and why?

Figure #2.1: Situational (states), ideographic, and nomothetic (types and traits) approaches to the study of personality p1 1)Situational: personality as inconsistent states/behaviors p2 p1 2)Ideographic: describes different people with different terms types p1 p2 p1 p2 traits 3)Nomothetic: describes different people using same types (extremes) or traits (continuum)

Figure #2.3: Dispositional approaches to personality: traits and types traits types • continuous • degree (how?) • quantitative • ordinal • score on x-y factor • discontinuous • discrete (what?) • qualitative • categorical • x or y x y x y

Figure #2.2: Personality traits as psychological determinants of consistent behaviors • WHAT ARE PERSONALITY TRAITS? • General descriptions of individuals • Implicit explanations of their behavior • Internal characteristics of the individual • Causal determinants of repetitive behaviors • They explain and predict systematic differences • As well as similarities between individuals • 3 EXAMPLES: • Pete is a selfish guy • Leo is a happy girl • Sven is incredibly obsessive

Figure #3.2: correlation and causation (5 possible paths) x y x y z y 1 4 y x y z x 2 5 H1: Smoking causes Neuroticism H2: Neuroticism causes smoking H3: Physiological arousal causes both smoking and Neuroticism H4: Smoking causes physiological arousal, which in turn causes Neuroticism H5: Neuroticism causes physiological arousal, which in turn causes smoking x z 3 y

Figure #3.2 Moderation • Gender and smoking are uncorrelated or independent(they do not overlap) • Gender and smoking are both correlated with stress • Both men and women are more likely to experience stress if they are smokers • Both smokers and non-smokers are more likely to experience stress if they are male x z y x = gender, y = smoking, z = stress

Figure #3.4 Personality and health: 3 types of influence Personality A (-), N (+) C (+) C (-), N (+) Intrinsic dispositions: anger mistrust Risky behavioral choices smoking drugs Prevention & reaction visits to doctor treatment - - + HEALTH Note. A = Agreeableness, N = Neuroticism, C = Conscientiousness, + = positive influence, - = negative influence

Figure #3.4 Personality, culture, and happiness Personality (dispositional Influences) Culture (situational influences) Life events Socio-politico-economic factors Extraversion Emotional Stability happiness

Figure #3.5 Personality and subjective well-being: the “bigger picture” Well-being Social A N Subjective Quality of life E C Economic Neuroticism, E = Extraversion, A = Agreeableness, C = Conscientiousness

Differential Psychology and Pyschopathology Abnormality (psychopathology) Abnormality (psychopathology) Normality (differential psychology)

Figure #4.4: Diathesis-stress model: An integrative approach to psychopathology Genetic predisposition (vulnerability) diathesis impaired social functioning interaction symptoms stress impaired occupational functioning Environmental Triggers (potentiators)

Figure #4.5: A simplified adaptation of McCrae & Costa’s (1999) dynamic personality model External influences Cultural norms, life events Characteristic adaptations: goals, attitudes, beliefs, etc. Self-concept: self-schemas, personal myths Basic Traits Neuroticism Extraversion Openness Agreeableness Conscientiousness genes

Figure #5.1: Personality and intelligence chapters in context personality intelligence what is it? does it matter? what is it? does it matter? chapter #2 chapter #3 chapter #5 chapter #6

Figure #5.3: Graphical depiction of the bell curve or normal distribution of IQ The “bell curve” figure below shows the normal distribution of IQ scores, which have a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15. Thus if your IQ = 100 you have “average” intelligence, whereas an IQ = 130 shows superior intelligent, and an IQ = 70 signals borderline retardation. SD -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 IQ 55 70 85 100 115 130 145

Figure #6.4 Mediated and direct effects of g on job performance Training performance g JOB performance

Figure #6.4: Occupational consequences of IQ (based on Gottfredson, 2004) Low, slow, simple, supervised Mastery, learning, hands-on Written materials + experience Explicit, hands-on Gathers, infers, self-training University type Training potential Clerk, teller Police officer Machinist Salesperson Career potential Assembler Food service Nurse’s aide Manager School teacher Accountant Lawyer Scientist CEO 70-75 75-80 80-85 85-90 90-95 95-100 100-105 105-110 110-115 115-120 120-125 125-130

#9.5 Intelligence predicts health and longevity health g Self-care Risk-prevention Optimal treatment LONGEVITY Accident prevention

#6.5 The path from g to longevity Better genes Better informed Avoid risks Choose healthy Live longer

Figure #6.6 Generational gains (father-son) in socio-economic status as a function of IQ (based on Mascie-Taylor & Gibson, 1978) IQ points (difference) 15 10 5 0 -5 -10 -15 -20 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 Socio-economic (difference)

Figure #6.7 Origin of race differences in IQ and implications GENETIC Poverty and social inequalities Are unchangeable ENVIRONMENTAL Society is unfair towards certain groups TEST BIAS IQ test are designed to favour certain groups

Figure #6.8: In decline: sex differences in abilities (based on Feingold, 1988) 1.6 M speed Spe female advantage language 1.4 L mechanical M male advantage 1.2 spatial M Spa 1 M M .8 Spe .6 Spe Spe Spa .4 L L L L Spa Spe Spa .2 Spa Standard deviation 1947 1980 1962 1972

Figure #9.8 Event-related potentials for low and high IQ subjects (loosely based on Ertl & Schafer, 1969) IQ = 145 IQ = 75 0 Time in milliseconds 250

Figure #6.4 g may influence both cognitive performance and brain activity measures Cognitive performance Psychometric tests g Brain activity EEG, ERP

Figure #7.1 Individual differences: Genetically or environmentally determined? We are born the same but experience makes as different OR Our experience is biologically determined IS OUR EXPERIENCE INFLUENCED BY GENETICALLY DETERMINED INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES? ARE INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN PERSONALITY AND INTELLIGENCE THE PRODUCT OF EXPERIENCE?

Figure #7.2: Family, adoption, and twin designs Family studies Adoption studies Twin studies Biological parents Biological parents Adoptive parents Biological parents Biological parents G+E G+E G+E G+E G E G+E child child DZ DZ MZ MZ Child shares genes (G) and environment (E) with parents. The effects of genes and environment are thus confounded Child shares genes with biological, environment with adoptive, parents. Genetic effects are evident if child resembles biological parents, and vice-versa Fraternal/dizygotic (DZ) twins share 50% of their genes, whilst identical/monozygotic (MZ) twins share 100% of their genes. ComparingMZ and DZ twins will provide evidence for the effect of genes (like in matched designs)

Figure #7.4: IQ correlations for family, adoption and twin designs (adapted from Plomin & Spinath, 2004) r values 1 Common genes and environment 0.9 Adopted-apart MZ Common environment 0.8 0.7 Common genes 0.6 0.5 Together Sib 0.4 Adoptive Sib P-O = parent-offspring Adopted-apart P-O 0.3 Sib = siblings MZ = monozygotic 0.2 DZ = dizygotic 0.1 0 Adoptive P-O Adopted-apart Sib Together P-O Together DZ Together MZ

Figure #7.2: Genetic effects on IQ over the lifespan (Adapted from McGue et al., 1993) 1.0 DZ TWINS MZ TWINS 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 4-6 years 12-16 years Over 20 years 4-6 years 12-16 years Over 20 years

Figure #7.6: Genetic interplay: Personality and intelligence Intelligence (gf) Knowledge Intelligence (gc) Adult skills Environment genes Personality traits

Figure #7.7 On the raise: The Flynn effect in 4 nations (IQ increases across time) 100 Belgium 95 Norway 90 85 Netherlands 80 Great Britain 75 70 1942 1952 1962 1972 1982 1992

Figure #8.1: Hot intelligencesat a glance 1920… 1983… 1985… 1990… Multiple intelligences Social intelligence Practical Intelligence Emotional intelligence Thorndike Gardner Sternberg Salovey Mayer Goleman Act wisely in interpersonal relations Identify and manage emotions in self and others Do well in everyday live; being streetwise Bodily Social Spiritual Musical skills

Figure #8.1: Thorndike’s three intelligences and social intelligence Intelligence Mechanical Abstract Social Ability to manage objects Ability to manage ideas Ability to manage people

Figure #8.1: Four related problems with the notion of Social Intelligence Objectively testable? (“correct” answers) SOCIAL INTELLIGENCE Different from Cognitive ability? Different from Personality? Predicts unique Variance?

Figure #8.2: Testing hot intelligence theories: 5 main questions for research Does it exist? Some people are generally more able than others to… Does it refer to stable individual differences? Can it be measured? Same people will always score the same on the same test Can it be quantified through reliable psychometric tools? Is it important? It is better to have high than low scores? Does it predict real-life criteria (e.g., job success, happiness)? Is it an ability? Is it related to intelligence rather than personality traits? Measured by performance tests moderately correlated with g? it is more important than IQ? Does it tell us anything new, i.e. provide any novel information? Does it have incremental validity, predict outcomes beyond IQ?

Figure #10.1: Conceptual map of chapter’s contents introduction definition paradigms differential approaches creativity and intelligence creativity and personality testing creativity creativity across fields summary & conclusions

Figure #10.9 Genius and insanity From top left (clockwise): Schumann, Tchaikovsky, Pollock, Van Gogh, Newton, Wittgenstein, Poe, and Hemingway, all experienced psychopathological symptoms

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES