Qualitative Methods of Data Collection

1. Qualitative Methods of Data Collection Researcher is in the field for prolonged periods of time Researcher uses systematic observation People observed, Their social interaction And the context

2. Observation Strategies • Seamless container • Work around the room • Describe what you see and hear • How do people enter and leave the setting? • Ask questions

3. Taking Notes • Field notes • created on the spot; a sequential record of what was observed • Read through and reflect immediately after leaving the scene • Jot down additional detail or questions • Number and date each page • Take more notes than you believe are necessary

4. Taking Notes • Capture participants’ words, phrases, and comments • Using audio or video • Depends on the situation and researcher role • Even the best recordings cannot capture the full spectrum of nonverbal behavior • Recording devices can fail • Ethically maintain the recordings

5. If you can’t take notes: • Retreat to a setting away from the interaction scene • Take frequent breaks so you don’t overload your memory • After leaving the interaction setting, review the notes you made • add detail and ask questions

6. Two Types of Notes Describing What? Who? When? Where? Analyzing Why? How?

7. Field Interviewing • Method for discovering how people • Think and feel about their communication practices • Order and assess their world • Semidirected conversation • Goal is to uncover participant's point of view • More than just asking questions to get answers • Interviews can be formal, informal, or both

8. Conceptualize the Interview Process • Review the topical and interview literature • Develop the purpose of your study • Develop research questions • Design the interview • Decide how to find and select respondents • Determine how many respondents are needed • Generally enough when interviews are producing the same data

9. Conducting the Interview • Select locations and times comfortable and accessible for respondents • Best done in pairs • One to interview; one to take notes • Establish context and frame for interview • Define situation, explain purpose, ask about taping the interview, ask if participant has any questions

10. Asking Questions Carefully construct questions to get the information you need or to prompt discussion Prepare and use an interview guide Ask relevant biographical questions to contextualize information Some questions should allow respondent to tell his or her own story Open questions are better than closed questions

11. Concluding the Interview • Debrief the participant • Summarize main points and new information • Provide any information that was withheld from participant before interview • Ask if participant has any questions • Thank the participant • Transcribe the interview

12. Strengths and Limitationsof Interview Research Strengths Face-to-face setting allows youto probe and follow up Can collect data on behavior/events you cannot observe Limitations Interviews produce an enormous amount of data Participant can stray off course Participant may be hesitant to talk

13. Focus Groups • Facilitator-led group discussion • Usually 5 to 10 participants • 60 to 90 minute group discussion • Respondents encouraged to interact with one another • Not a decision-making group • Not a marketing focus group

14. Focus Group Outline • Standardized list of questions or topic to cover in each focus group • Usually a funnel from general to more specific • Opening questions should be broad • To encourage free discussion • Allow each participant to respond • Allow moderator to identify other issues

15. Selecting Focus Group Participants • Based upon research question • Select strangers who possess similar characteristics • Use screening questions to qualify participation • Motivate those selected to participate • Overrecruit by 20%

16. Conducting Focus Group Research • Researcher decides level of structure and how conversation will be encouraged • In 90 minutes or less • Introduce participants • Serve refreshments • Conduct discussion • Summarize what was said as feedback to participants

17. Focus Group Moderator • May not be the researcher • Someone with whom participants can identify • Someone who is perceived as credible • Has the communication skills to gently guide a group’s discussion • Not an interviewer • Not a participant

18. Focus GroupStrengths and Limitations Strengths Provides views and opinions in participants’ own words Allows consensus or conflict to emerge among participants Can generate information about same topic from different people Limitations Talkative or overly opinionated participants Hesitant to express opinions opposite of others’ opinions Researcher can over influence Easy to overgeneralize findings

19. Collecting Narratives • People tell stories as a way of knowing, understanding, and explaining their lives • Stories organize and interpret their experiences • Reliable guide to beliefs, attitudes, and values • Uncover how isolated events are part of a larger environment • Uncover justifications people give for past actions

20. Sources for Stories • From one-on-one interviews • Critical incident technique • Positive or negative memorable events • Everyday conversation • Through some form of participant observation • In print or online

21. Strengths and Limitations of Narrative Research Strengths Richness and depth of data Collect data about communication events that would be difficult or impossible to observe Limitations Risk in asking participants to recall troubling or negative stories Generalizability of findings can be restricted Did participants embellish story?

22. Ethnography Study and representation of people and their interaction Holistic description of interactants in their cultural or subcultural group Researcher immersed into interaction field for long periods

23. Types of Ethnography • Ethnography of communication • Focus on language or speech communities • Speaking is structured • Speaking is distinctive • Speaking is social • Autoethnography • Researcher is also participant • Highly personal and emotional

24. Ethnographers Share the environment of those being studied Capture interaction as it occurs in its natural context Experience firsthand the problems, background, language, rituals, and social relations of a specific group of people

25. Characteristics of Ethnography Researchers are unlikely to have well-developed research questions Researcher must work with data that do not fit neatly into categories Focus is on one or a small number of cases Analysis produces deep, thick descriptions

26. Strengths and Limitations of Ethnographic Research Strengths Rich deep description Researcher develops intimacy with communicators and context otherwise not possible Limitations Time commitment Researcher must be saturated in the data to write the research report Can over-identify with participants