Methods of data collection .

1. Methods of data collection. Self –report method: Interviews Questionnaires Consists of a range of techniques that vary in the degree of structure. Loosely structured Tightly A. Unstructured and semistructured self – report techniques: Conversational in nature

2. Unstructured self- report methods: • Completely unstructured interviews: • The aim of these interviews is to elucidate the respondents perceptions of the world without imposing on them any of the researcher’s views. • Focused interviews: A researcher has a set of broad questions that must be asked.

3. Focus group interviews: -A group of usually 5 to 15 people whose opinions and experiences are solicited. • Disadvantage: some people are not comfortable expressing their views in front of a group. 4. Life histories: are narrative self- disclosures about life experiences, 5.Diaries (a daily log) concerning some aspect of their lives over a specified period of time.

4. Advantages of unstructured approaches: • Are of greatest utility to researchers when a new area of research is being explored. • Are extremely time- consuming. • And demanding of the researcher’s skill in organizing, analyzing and interpreting qualitative materials.

5. B.Structured interviews and questionnaires: • Self – report data are often collected by means of a formal, written document ( referred to as an instrument) -In a totally structured instrument, the subjects are asked to respond to exactly the same questions in exactly the same order, and they are given the same set of options for their responses.

6. -Question form: • Closed – ended question or fixed alternative question • Open – ended questions . Closed-ended questions are more difficult to construct than open ended items but easier to administer and to analyze. -The analysis of open- ended questions is time consuming and difficult and it is also more subjective.

7. Closed – ended questions are more efficient than open- ended questions in the sense that a respondent is normally able to complete more closed- ended items than open- ended items in a given amount of time. • Also, in questionnaires, respondents may be unwilling to compose lengthy written responses to open ended questions.

8. - The major disadvantages of closed- ended questions:- • The possibility of the researcher neglecting or overlooking some potentially important responses. • Are sometimes superficial. • Some respondents object to being forced into choosing from among alternatives that do not reflect their opinions precisely. • Combinations of both types a highly recommended.

9. Instrument construction: • Question wording: • Clarity: • Questionnaire or interview schedule should strive for clarity and unambiguity by: • Avoid long sentences or phrases. • Avoid double barreled questions. That contain two distinct ideas or concepts. • Avoid technical terms if more common terms are equally appropriate.

10. D- Try to state your questions in the affirmative rather than negative. • Ability of respondents to reply or give information by: • Language should be simple. • Level of information. • Memory. 3. Freedom from bias:

11. Some techniques to minimize bias are: • Avoid leading questions • Avoid identifying a position with a prestigious person or group. • Always avoid putting respondents on the defensive or making them fell in the wrong (Minimizing embarrassment)

12. Pilot study: -To pretest a newly instrument or pre-existing instrument • A pilot study is a small – scale trial run of the actual research. A group of people similar to the study subjects should be tested in conditions similar to those that will be used in the actual research study. • The purpose of a pilot study is to pave the way for the administration of a questionnaire that will obtain the desired data.

13. Factors influencing response rates of mailed questionnaires include: • Information in the cover letter that motivates respondents. • Should be brief and concise and contain the following information:- • Identification of the researcher and any sponsoring agency or person. • Purpose of the research study. • How participant was selected.

14. Invitation to participate in the study. • Reason the respondent should answer question. • Length of time to complete the questionnaire. • How data will be used. • Deadline for return of questionnaire. • An offer to inform respondent of result of study. • A thank – you for reading the letter and for those who are planning to complete the questionnaire.

15. Contact phone number, address or both. • Personal signature of the researcher. B. Mailing at a time other than holiday seasons or popular vacation times. C. Hand- addressed outer envelopes. D. Neatness and clarity of the instrument. E. Time to complete the instrument does not exceed 20 to 25 minutes.

16. F. Ease of completion of the instrument. G. A guarantee of anonymity. H. Personal signature of the researcher. • Inclusion of return- addressed, stamped envelop. J. Instructions on how to complete the form should be prepared. Scales:- A scale is a device designed to assign a numeric score to subjects to place them on a continuum.

17. - The most common one is the Likert scale. (psychologist). • Respondents are asked to indicate the degree to which they agree or disagree with the opinion expressed by the statement.

18. Interviews versus questionnaires • Questionnaires, relative to interviews, have the following advantages: • Questionnaires are much less costly and require less time and energy to administer. • Questionnaires offer the possibility of complete anonymity, which may be crucial in obtaining information about socially unacceptable behaviors (e.g., child abuse).

19. 3. The absence of an interviewer ensures that there will be no bias in the responses that reflect the respondent’s reaction to the interviewer rather than to the questions themselves. The strengths of interviews • The response rate tends to be high in face- to face interviews. • Many people simply cannot “fill out a questionnaire.

20. 3. Interviews are less prone to misinterpretation 4. Interviewers can produce additional information through observation.

21. Guidelines for critiquing self-reports • Does the research question lend itself to a self- report approach? Would an alternative method have been more appropriate? • In the degree of structure of the researcher’s approach consistent with the nature of the research question?

22. Did the researcher use the best possible mode for the collection of self-report data (i.g., personal interview, telephone interview, self- administered questionnaire), given the nature of the research question and the characteristics of the respondents? • Was the response rate adequately high? Did the researcher take steps to produce a high response rate? Dos the researcher discuss the nature and extent of biases (if any) resulting from non response?

23. 5. Do the question included in the instrument or topic guide adequately cover the complexities of the problem under investigation? 6. Was there an appropriate balance of open-ended and closed-ended questions? 7. (If an instrument is included for review) are the questions in a certain direction? Do response options to closed-ended questions adequately cover the alternatives? Is the ordering of questions appropriate? 8. (If an instrument is included for review) are the questions sensitively worded in a manner that protects the respondent from psychological distress?

24. open-Ended • What led to your decision to stop using oral contraceptives? • What did you do when you discovered • you had AIDS? • Closed- Ended • Dichotomous Question • Have you ever been hospitalized? • ( ) 1. Yes • ( ) 2. No

25. 2.Multiple- Choice Question How important is it to you to avoid a pregnancy at this time? ( ) 1. Extremely important is it to you to avoid a pregnancy at this time? ( ) 2. Very important ( ) 3. Somewhat important ( ) 4. Not at all important

26. 3. “Cafeteria” Question People have different opinions about the use of estrogen- replacement therapy for women in menopause. Which of the following of the following statements best represents your point of view? ( ) 1. Estrogen replacement is dangerous and should be totally banned ( ) 2. Estrogen replacement may have some undesirable side effects that suggest the need for caution in its use. ( ) 3. I am undecided about my views on estrogen-replacement therapy. ( ) 4. Estrogen replacement has many beneficial effects that merit its promotion. ( ) 5. Estrogen replacement is a wonder cure that should be administered routinely to menopausal women.

27. 4.Rank-order Question People value different things about life, Below is a list of principles or ideas that are often cited when people are asked to name things they value most. Please indicate the order of importance of these values to you by placing a 1 beside the most important, 2 beside the next most important, and so forth. ( ) Achievement and success ( ) Family relationships ( ) friendships and social interaction ( ) Health ( ) Money ( ) Religion

28. 5.Forced – Choice question Which statement most closely represents your point of view? ( ) 1. What happens to me is my own doing. ( ) 2. Sometimes, I feel I don’t have enough control over my life. 6. Rating Question On a scale from 0 to 10 , where 0 means extremely dissatisfied and 10 means extremely hospitalization? Extremely dissatisfied 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

29. Table 8-3. Example of a Likert Scale to Measure Attitudes Toward the Mentally Ill