Ethnic Diversity, Migration and the Expansion of the EU

1. Ethnic Diversity, Migration and the Expansion of the EU Carlo Ruzza Department of Sociology University of Trento University of Trento

2. Introduction: Ethnic Diversity in the EU • This lecture will discuss the role of ethnicity in the EU and will examine ethnic issues in terms of: • 1) …historical European ethnic diversity (i.e. minority nationalism, economic nationalism and border nationalism) • 2) …the impact of recent migrations on the conceptualisation of ethnic issues. In particular, it will focus on • 3) …European integration and its impact on ethnic relations in Europe. University of Trento

3. Ethnicity: historical background • The main political devides in Europe have changed over time. Three revolutions have created them and their legacy is related to different types of social movements. • They are the national revolution that created state/church divisions. Religiously oriented movements are one of its expression. • The industrial revolution which created the urban/rural and class devide; it supported Marxist revolutionary social movements. • The international revolution contrasts nationally and internationally oriented individuals. Belonging is crucial to all of them. • The national revolution replaced religion as a source of legitimate authority with the idealised concept of the nation as an idealised homogeneous and sacralised collectivity which is generally embedded politically in a state and is territorrially based. • This idealised concept of nationhood has been pursued through parallel processes of state building and nation building which have however left behind inassimilated social groups and territorial enclaves. University of Trento

4. Ethnicity: theoretical background • Theories of Nationalism: • The rise of the nation is often dated to the time of the French Revolution. However, there is a debate on what is its relation to the state and to modernity • Some see it as mainly the outcome of elites’ instrumental attempt to shape social change • Others see this instrumental use as based on persisting pre-modern ethnic sentiments University of Trento

5. (a) Primordialists • Historians like Frantisek Palacky, Eoin Mac Neill and Nicolae Iorga saw nations as evolving primordial entities. They recognised that before the 18th century nationality was subordinated to religion and dynastic principles, but still thought that nations existed before the emergence of the idea of popular sovereignty. University of Trento

6. (b) Modernists • Since the 60’s primordialists have been criticised by various authors such as Carl Deutsch, Ernest Gellner, E. Hobsbawm and Benedict Anderson. • They see the nation as a modern institution, and argue that the raise of the nation as a widespread political model is only two centuries old. • For modernists the nation can only be understood in relation to the nation-state. The nation-building process is a political one and is rooted in the interests of state-builders. “Nationalist elites invented nations” (Breuilly). • Historically, nations are significantly different from previous units • They are artefacts of new print technologies, territorial integration through transports, the bureaucratic state, industrialisation University of Trento

7. (c) Ethnicist Approaches • Some theorists (i.e.Anthony Smith, John Armstrong) accept the recent and political manufacture of nations but argue that it was only possible on a pre-existing basis – a body of myths and symbols which persist over long time. • They argue that states require more than citizenship to sustain emotional commitment and solidarity. University of Trento

8. Regionalism and Nationalism • Although different in many respects, regionalist and nationalist formations share many traits such as the belief that cultural boundaries should be coterminous with political boundaries and a concern for 'protecting' communities from ‘enemies’. • An important issue is whether the 'other' is considered a non-resident of the region, such as is for the Basques, or whether there are more inclusive criteria such as traditional roots in the community or the mastery of a language. • Some examples of EU etno-nationalism: • The Basque Country • Catalunia • Scotland • Wales • Süd Tyrol • Sardinia University of Trento

9. Ethno-Nationalism in the EU • General theories of nationalism can be applied to the EU to examine the emergence of ethno-nationalist movements. • We will briefly review the institutional structure of the EU and then consider the contribution of EU regional policy to promote regionalism. • As it emerged historically, nationalism was not based on ethnicity, but on cultural affinities. Yet, today ethnicity is the most recurrent claim (i.e. Tamil and Kurds). And it is an exclusivist claim • A less exclusivist nationalism is based on a common culture but not myths of common descent (social nationalism i.e. Catalans). University of Trento

10. Grievances • Among nationalist movements there are Ethno-nationalist groups with a regionalist character. Regionalist groups promote the autonomy of specific ethnic nations within larger nation states. • Typically they claim that specific regions need to be protected from the economic or cultural predatory behaviour of nation states. They advocate an increase of various types of political and economic resources ranging from subsidies to depressed areas to the institutional protection of linguistic differences. • Their independence claims range from limited autonomy in specific sectors to seeking secession and promoting ethnic nationalism and statehood. In these claims they are similar to nationalistic groups and often it is difficult to differentiate them. A successful regionalist secessionist movement might become a nationalist party after secession. University of Trento

11. History and theory of EU Ethno-nationalism • The parallel processes of nation building and state building resulted in a cultural and political marginalisation of several European regions, and particularly those most distant from the cultural and political centre. Political marginalisation was bitterly resented in marginal regions. Often the church as a counterpart to the state became a bastion of protection of local languages and sensibilities • Nationalist-regionalist movements have been extensively studied in specific regions. Less work is available on their impact outside specific regions. Their ability to confront ethnic stereotypes, which affect their nationals in their relation with other groups. • There are several theories to explain regionalism. They range from theories on internal colonialism, to theories that see it as a reaction to the demise of competing identities, such as the communist, religious or national identities. Also there are theories about loss of status, and economic dominance. University of Trento

12. Three EU regionalisms • The first kind comprises a traditional regionalism that has been dominant in culturally and linguistically marginal regions. • There is then a border regionalism that entertains stronger relations with a neighbouring state. • And there is a regionalism that is associated to both emerging economic identities and to emerging ideas of governance based on civic values considered incompatible with the host nation state. University of Trento

13. Types of ethno-regionalism: Language-based regionalism • Another type focuses on languages. It resulted from transfers of territories as a consequence of state treaties, often following wars. • Border areas where majority languages were spoken were re-defined as linguistic minorities, engendering attempts at internal colonization by annexing states and discontent in local populations, and the emergence of political identities. • This is for instance the case of German speakers in Northern Italy after the First World War. Other identities of this kind have an even stronger gestation, such as the Alsatian. University of Trento

14. Economic regionalism • In recent years, some areas, which do not have a strong tradition of minority nationalism, have done remarkably well economically. Also national economic dynamics and dynamics related to processes of globalization have increased the economic distinctiveness of regions. • This has produced a feeling of common belonging, which has sometimes translated into political action. • Areas such as Lombardy, Baden-Wittenberg and Rhone-Alps have been studied under the paradigm of a ‘new regionalism’ (Harvie 1994). From these areas, spring a family of movements and parties such as the Northern League in Italy. University of Trento

15. Mixed types • Some traditional regions of minority nationalism have also done better than their host states economically and have developed traits similar to those of economically reach regions, such as the Basque and Catalan in Spain. • This is also the case of some border regions such as Flanders. These traits include an emphasis on entrepreneurship and hard work as a moralised trait University of Trento

16. Explaining ethno-regionalism in the EU (1) • Explanations that consider ethno-regionalism often focus on the rebellion of elites against Capitals, the ‘internal colonialism’ thesis (Hecter 1985). • They emphasize the fact that, for a number of reasons, state Capitals would no longer be able to co-opt elites. • This would be applicable to the EU to the extent that, after the SEA, the economic requirements of EU integration came to mean the extraction of additional resources from peripheral elites and a halt to deficit spending approaches. University of Trento

17. Theories of Ethno-regionalism (2) • There are general explanations of ethno-regionalism that focus on accentuated perceptions of injustice. Often these explanations are applied to regions marked by economic obsolescence and cultural particularism (Harvie 1994) • Secondly, there are explanations that posit the emergence of new political opportunities for regionalist movements. Even small states become politically and economically viable in an integrated Europe. Separatist movements can therefore find fertile grounds where they were previously kept at bay by economic considerations. • These movements have traditionally been stronger in historical regions. This is therefore an explanation compatible with the previous one. University of Trento

18. Identity explanations and the crisis of politics (3) • Then there are explanations that apply to all regions. There identity-based explanations, which argue that in a period of collapse of political identities, such as socialist and Communist identities after the collapse of the eastern bloc, regional identities acquire new salience. These explanations are clearly applicable to post-1989 Europe. • There are explanations that concern what has come to be known as the crisis of politics, that is to say, the crisis of political representation, where political decision-making is perceived to be remote and uncontrollable. Regionalism appears as a response predicated upon the assumption that political entrustment is more transparent in a smaller area. Fourthly, there are broader cultural explanations, such as those that posit the emergence of a new bourgeois particularism grounded in a collapse of ideals of social solidarity (Harvie 1994). University of Trento

19. Regionalism at EU level: Strategic Essentialism as an explanation of ethno-nationalism • Regionalism in the EU has been explained as a consequence of EU level regional policy which encourages regional identities and regionally-based claims for resources • it is useful to frame EU ethno-nationalism in the context of EU regional policy and its connected institutions (EFA, EBUL, Regional Offices) • There are two types of regionalism operating in Brussels: one radicalised but marginal which emerged from three historical trajectories, and one weaker but dominant. EU institutions have co-opted the weaker form to provide legitimacy to the process of EU construction but marginalised the stronger form while adopting elements of its political philosophy. University of Trento

20. 2) Migration Policy in the EU • Movements of population have also made ethnicity newly relevant. They have also awakened interest in issues of religious and racial discrimination. There have been relevant migrations in the EU in the last 20 years. Levels of migration from non-EU countries have been particularly high in the mid nineties. • These flows have sparked media concerns, political reactions and policy responses. • After the ratification of Maastricht in 1993, asylum policy, the rules governing the crossing of the external borders, and checks on persons at borders, immigration policy and policy relating to nationals of non-member countries are considered as matters of common interest to the Member States of the European Union. • The Amsterdam treaty sets minimum common standards to regulate asylum • It sets common standards for dealing with illegal immigration, granting of residence permits, the rights of legally resident citizens of non-member countries. University of Trento

21. EU cooperation in JHA • Cooperation between the justice administrations of the Member States • the GROTIUS programme to assist judicial cooperation • Cooperation between the customs administrations of the Member States • Cooperation between the police forces of the Member States • measures to strengthen external frontiers and asylum and immigration policies • Asylum University of Trento

22. Implementing Amsterdam • In the Amsterdam treaty there is a new effort to combat discrimination based on sex, racial or ethnic origin, religion or belief, disability, age or sexual orientation. Under the Amsterdam Treaty, the areas of visa, asylum, immigration and other policies related to free movement of persons, like judicial cooperation in civil matters, are transferred from the EU's third pillar to its first pillar. These provisions offer new opportunities to tackle an area of major public concern and thus to bring the European Union closer to the people. • JHA: An area of freedom, with homogeneous procedures, equivalent responses, better co-operation in criminal matters, a common sense of justice. • Schengen agreements are now incorporated into the Amsterdam Treaty, though certain Member States are allowed to derogate (UK, Ir, Dk). Checks have already been abolished between a number of Member States. • The Amsterdam treaty establishes that after 5 years of its entry into force EU internal borders will be removed. Common standards for external checks will be applied. There will be common rules for short-period visits. There will be a common visa requirement policy. University of Trento