The Enlightenment

1. The Enlightenment The European Age of Reason 1689-1789

2. Origins of the Enlightenment • The ideals of humanism from the Renaissance permeate society. • Rediscovery of classical texts influences the new philosophers. • The Scientific Revolution convinces many that the world can be understood through natural laws. • The Wars of Religion persuade many that toleration is the only way for civilization to survive.

3. The Doctrine of Progress • Philosophes believed in the progress of human beings. • Human beings were basically good, but corrupted by society; therefore, human institutions needed reform • Marquis de Condorcet (1743-1794) made argument in Progress of the Human Mind

4. John Locke (1632-1704) • Two Treatises on Civil Government:justified supremacy of Parliament; natural rights • Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690): tabula rasa (“blank slate”) • considered one of most important Enlightenment works • all human knowledge is the result of sensory experience: thus, human progress is in the hands of society—education!

5. Deism • secular world view: first time in human history; marked end of age of religion • natural science and reason • deism: God created universe and then stepped back and left it running (like a clock) – prime mover • Grew out of Newton’s theories regarding natural law • ThomasPaine, Age of Reason: advocates deism • Voltaire also advocated deism over Christianity.

6. Voltaire (1694-1778) • François Marie Arouet • Ardent critic of the Old Regime • Wrote essays, letters, plays. • Candide (1759) satire criticizing religious persecution and superstition.

7. Voltaire in England • Voltaire in imprisoned in France after his ideas offend French authorities. • He lived in England from 1726 to 1729. • He comes to admire the English toleration of political ideas and religion. • Returning to France, he published Letters on the English (1733), admiring English constitutionalism and criticizing French absolutism.

8. Voltaire and Tolerance • Voltaire supported toleration in religion and politics, an idea he saw in practice in England. • Voltaire defended Jean Calas, a Hugeunot accused of murdering his son lest he convert to Catholicism. • He published his Treatise on Tolerance in 1763, convincing authorities to reverse their conviction of Calas in 1765.

9. The Enlightened Despots Catherine the Great • Least “enlightened” of the Enlightened Despots • westernization: architecture, sculpture, music--supported philosophes • reforms:reduced torture, limited religious toleration, some education improvement, increased local control

10. The Enlightened Despots • Joseph II (1765-1790) – greatest of the Enlightened despots (“greatest good for greatest number”) • Abolished serfdom in 1781, freedom of press, freedom of religion & civic rights, more equitable justice system, made German official language (to assimilate minorities), increased control over Catholic education, expanded state schools, left empire in economic and political turmoil: Leopold I rescind many laws (e.g., serfdom)

11. The Enlightened Despots • Frederick the Great • Became a reformer during 2nd half of his reign; ruler was the “first servant of the state” • Religious freedom, education in schools and universities, codified laws, promoted industry and agriculture, encouraged immigration • Social structure remained heavily stratified: serfdom; extended privileges for the nobility, Junkers became heart of military; difficult upward mobility for middle class leadership.

12. Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755) • French attorney and philosophe. • Believed in no single political system. • In Spirit of the Laws (1748) advocated separation of powers amongst executive, legislative, and judicial branches.

13. Diderot and the Encyclopedia • Denis Diderot (1718-1784) edited the Encyclopedia published in 28 vols. Between 1751 and 1772. • Voltaire, Rousseau and Montesquieu contributed articles.

14. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) • Born in Geneva to Calvinist family • He believed rationalism and civilization was destroying rather than liberating the individual; emphasized nature, passion—influenced early Romantic movement

15. Jean-Jacques Rousseau • Natural Education • Rousseau believed that in there natural state, humans were virtuous, free, equal, and happy. • Civilization had corrupted them. • Natural education would free children of corruption • Set forth ideas in Emile (1762). • Children would learn through experience (nature, emotional experience), not books.

16. Jean-Jacques Rousseau • General Will • Rousseau advocated radical contract form of government in The Social Contract (1762) • Desired freedom, but rejected individualism and focused on his role in society. • People’s opinion would form the “general will” to be carried out by a small government. • He did not favor democracy, but felt that sovereignty laid in the people.

17. Economic Philosophes • François Quesnay (1694-1774) – “physiocrats”: opposed to mercantilist economic theory. • advocated reform of the agrarian order. • Adam Smith (1727-1790): Wealth of Nations (1776): The “Bible” of capitalism; laissez faire “let do” François Quesnay

18. Women Philosophes • Gender theory: women played important role in organizing salons. • Salons of Madame de Geoffren and Louise de Warens • Mary Wollstonecraft – Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792) • Olympe de Gouge Declaration of the Rights of Women Mary Wollstonecraft

19. The Later Enlightenment: • Baron Paul d’Holbach (1723-1789): humans were machines governed by outside forces • freewill, God, and immortality of soul were foolish myths • severe blow to unity of the Enlightenment • David Hume (1711-76): emphasized limitations of human reasoning (similar to Rousseau) • human mind is nothing but a bundle of impressions; later became dogmatic skeptic that undermined Enlightenment • Immanuel Kant (1724-1794): Separated science and morality into separate branches of knowledge. • Science could describe natural phenomena of material world but could not provide a guide for morality

20. High Culture - Travel • Elites began to travel for pleasure in greater numbers than ever before. • The “grand tour” of Europe became a must for the cultured. • People wished to see the ruins of antiquity and the new urban centers throughout Europe. • Coffee houses offered a meeting place for people to discuss philosophy and the issues of the day.

21. The Salons • Groups organized by women, such as Madame de Pompadour, of wealthy families. • Gave a forum to which philosophes could share their ideas. • Allowed women a place were they could be taken seriously. • Often, the etiquette of the gatherings made things ‘artificial.’

22. Publishing and Reading • Publishing and bookselling became a major commercial enterprise in the 18th century. • Newspapers and journals became a part of the daily life of most urban Europeans. • Newspapers began to write more about political issues, particularly in England and during the Revolution in France. • There was also a large market for “bad books” describing scandals and sex.

23. The Arts:Neoclassicism to Romanticism • Literature • The Novel • Novel had its origins in mid 18th century England with the rising demand for fiction from the middle class. • Pioneers included Samuel Richardson and Henry Fielding. • A wide range of topics were covered in novels; they shadowed the plays of the time in dealing with family and social issues of the day

24. The Arts:Neoclassicism to Romanticism • Poetry • For 140 years from 1660 to 1800 neoclassical poetry reigned England. • Also known as Augustan poetry, neoclassical used strictly, structurally balanced verses, witty and elegant language with restrained and controlled emotion, the idea being to create a more refined verse. • Amongst the most famous neoclassical poets were John Dryden and Alexander Pope.

25. The Arts:Neoclassicism to Romanticism Poetry • However, in 1798 poets William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge published an anthology Lyrical Ballads, opening the Romantic period of poetry. • Romantic poetry was the complete opposite of Neoclassical. • Romantic poetry used simple language to create the impression that the poet were speaking out loud and usually spoke about common, everyday aspects of life and nature. • Later famous romantic poets of the time were William Blake, Lord Byron, John Keats and Percy Bysshe Shelley.

26. The Arts:Neoclassicism to Romanticism • Poetry • Johann von Goethe (1749-1832) • Prolific German writer and poet who’s work encompassed Neoclassical and Romantic elements. • He inspired the literary movement known as Sturm und Drang (Storm and Stress), emphasizing strong emotion experience. • His great works include The Sorrows of Young Werther (1774) and Faust (1801 and 1831)

27. The Arts:Neoclassicism to Romanticism • Music • Symphony • Began moving from “light” neoclassical works to more powerful and extended works. • Franz Joseph Hayden • Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart • Powerful extended symphonies that reflected the emotion of the Romantic movement. • Ludwig von Beethoven

28. The Arts:Neoclassicism to Romanticism • Visual Arts • NeoclassicalArt is a severe and unemotional form of art harkening back to the grandeur of ancient Greece and Rome. Its rigidity was a reaction to the overdone Rococo style and the emotional charged Baroque style. The rise of Neoclassical Art was part of a general revival of interest in classical thought, which was of major importance in the Enlightenment and the American and French revolutions.

29. Jacques-Louis David (1748–1825) • The most famous painter in Europe in the late 1700s and early 1800s. He breathed new life into history painting with his rigorously constructed compositions • David could be petty, graceless, and abrasive. Intensely competitive, he was confident and even boastful of his talent.

30. Jacques-Louis David - The Lictors Bring to Brutus the Bodies of His Sons

31. Jacques-Louis David – Oath of the Horatii

32. Benjamin West, The Death of General Wolfe (1770)

33. Benjamin West, Penn's Treaty with the Indians (1771)

34. The Arts:Neoclassicism to Romanticism • Romanticism might best be described as anticlassicism. A reaction against Neoclassicism, it is a deeply-felt style which is individualistic, exotic, beautiful and emotionally wrought. • Although Romanticism and Neoclassicism were philosophically opposed, they were the dominant European styles for generations, and many artists were affected to a lesser or greater degree by both. Artists might work in both styles at different times or even combine elements, creating an intellectually Romantic work using a Neoclassical visual style, for example.

35. Jacques-Louis David – Bonaparte Crossing the Alps

36. J.M.W. Turner - Snowstorm: Hannibal and His Army Crossing the Alps

37. Popular Literature • Designed for those who could barely read or what was going to be read aloud. • Three main forms: • Religious and superstitious works • Almanacs • Entertainment – satire, tales, fables. • Oral traditions continued with stories of daily life.

38. Mass Education • Religious wars increased literacy and education across Europe (particularly in Protestant nations) • Schooling was designed to maintain the social order and piety. • Many peasants opposed sending their children to school when they could help the family work.

39. Mass Education • Education in Western Europe was driven by demand and the needs of the community. • In Prussia and Austria, education became a state function • Austria – Habsburg General School Ordinance of 1774. • Schools in every parish. • Train teachers • Education was said to be compulsory • Prussia – Frederick the Great enacted similar reforms with less enthusiasm.

40. Recreation for the Masses • The spread of pubs and taverns became popular. • Festivals continued to be of importance. • First “spectator sports” become popular. • Blood sports such as boxing and cock fighting mixed with gambling popular with commoners. • Horse racing also popular. • Growing separation between elite and masses in entertainment.