Critical Thinking Lecture 7 Clear Thinking and Clear Writing

1. Critical ThinkingLecture 7Clear Thinking and Clear Writing By David Kelsey

2. Guidelines • Here are some general guidelines for writing a philosophy paper: • 1. Your philosophy paper will make an argument. • 2. The philosophy paper you will write in this course will be of 2 kinds: • a. The positive approach: • b. The negative approach:

3. Keep it modest & starting the writing process • 3. Keep the scope of your paper modest. • 4. How do you start the paper writing process? • Read and think about it • Work backwards

4. Start early &be simple • 5. Start the paper early, at least a few weeks in advance of the due date. • Finding your thoughts on a subject can be difficult. • 6. Be Simple: • Simple straightforward prose

5. Make the structure obvious and Be concise yet fully explain • 7. Make the structure of your paper obvious: • 8. Be concise yet fully explain • Cover one or two small points but do fully explore them

6. Chuck out what’s unnecessary • 9. Chuck out unnecessary paragraphs: • Each paragraph should be necessary in making your argument • Each sentence should be a necessary part of its paragraph • Each word should be a necessary part of its sentence

7. Avoid vagueness and ambiguity, anticipate objections & editing your draft • 10. Avoid vagueness and ambiguity. • 11. Anticipate objections:Imagine the reader of your paper is a devil’s advocate in the worst kind of way. • 12. Read and re-read your draft

8. Vagueness • A vague statement is one whose meaning is indistinct, imprecise or lacks details. • Degrees: Vagueness isn’t all or nothing. It comes in degrees. • Apartment example

9. Clarifying vagueness • Desirable vagueness: sometimes vagueness is actually desirable. • Being Romantic • Clarify: If we come across a vague statement we can simply try to clarify the lack of detail or indistinct-ness. • Job example

10. Vagueness and Propositions • A vague statement • it is unclear what proposition the sentence asserts at all. • It could be any one of a number of propositions

11. Ambiguous Claims • An ambiguous claim is one that is subject to more than one interpretation. • Claim x •   • P1 P2

12. A sentence that is semantically ambiguous is one which contains an ambiguous word or phrase. For example: Fixing the ambiguous word Semantic Ambiguity

13. A sentence is syntactically ambiguous when it is ambiguous because of its grammar or the way it has been structured or put together. When you have come across a semantic ambiguity you can simply alter the grammar Or you might need to re-write the claim altogether. Syntactic Ambiguity

14. Grouping Ambiguity • Grouping ambiguity: • unclear whether some word in the sentence is referring to a group or an individual. • Secretaries and Physicians • Lawnmowers and dirt bikes

15. The fallacy of Division: When we think that what is true of a group of things taken collectively is automatically true of the same things taken individually. The Giants example: The fallacy of Composition: When we think that what holds for a group of things individually holds automatically for the entire collective group. The Patriots example: Composition and Division

16. Stipulating Definitions • Stipulating definitions: • Terms are used that we don’t fully understand. • A term used is unusual or unfamiliar. • A brand new word • A familiar word is being used in a new way

17. Precising Definitions • Precising definitions: • Used to reduce vagueness or to eliminate ambiguity. • Some examples: • Justice: • Permissible:

18. Definitions:by Example & by synonym • Definition by example: • We define a term by example when we point to, name or describe one or more examples of something to which the defined term applies. • Definition by synonym: • We define a term by synonym when we give another word or phrase that means the same thing as the term being defined. • Bachelors example

19. Analytical Definitions: their form • An Analytical definition is composed of a definiendum and a definiens. • The definiendum: • The definiens: • Form: the form of a definition is this: • X =df _____ • Which is the definiendum and which is the definiens? • For example, • Knowledge =df true belief

20. Necessary andsufficient conditions • We can think of a definition as a set of necessary and sufficient conditions. • X is a necessary condition of Y if and only if (or iff) we cannot have Y without also having X. • Oxygen and Combustion • X is a sufficient condition of Y iff X is all that is needed to get Y. • Being born in the US and citizenship

21. Necessary and Sufficient Conditions #2 • X is both a necessary and sufficient condition of Y iff both • 1) we cannot have Y without also having X & • 2) X is all that is needed to get Y. • Knowledge is JTB

22. Correct Definitions • For a definition to be adequate the definiendum and definiens must be co-extensive. • For the defiendum and definiens of any definition to be co-extensive it must be the case that: • 1) • 2) • What is the extension of a concept?

23. Co-extensiveness:An example • So if your definition of KNOWLEDGE as TRUE BELIEF is correct then: • Everything in the extension of KNOWLEDGE is in the extension of TRUE BELIEF and vice versa.

24. Testing definitions • To determine if a definition is adequate: • determine if its definiendum and definiens are co-extensive. • Is there any item in the extension of one that isn’t in the extension of the other? • Example: Knowledge is true belief • All Knowledge is true belief. • All true belief is knowledge. • Universal generalizations and counterexamples

25. Counterexamples • A counterexample: a case that violates a universal generalization. • If we define knowledge as true belief we just need one counterexample to show this definition inadequate. • We need to find a case of knowledge that isn’t what? • Or a case of true belief that isn’t what? • A counterexample: • The Belief Game:

26. Counterexamples #2 • Love: Say I define Love as a deep seated feeling composed of compassion & care which one can have for another human being. • Can anyone find a counterexample to this definition? • We are looking for either: • a case of love that isn’t ____________ • a case of having this feeling for another human which isn’t ______________ • Any thoughts?