learning

1. learning Chapter 7

2. Basic Learning Concepts • What is learning? • Process of acquiring through experience new information or behaviors • How do we learn? • Through association: Certain events occur together (Classical conditioning); Stimuli that are not control are associated and response is automatic (respondent behavior) • Through consequences: Association between a response and consequences is learned (Operant conditioning) • Through acquisition of mental information that guides behavior: Cognitive learning

3. Classical Conditioning • Watson • Influenced by Pavlov • Theoretical goal of science of psychology is prediction and control of behavior • Behaviorism • Psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. • Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

4. Classical Conditioning • Pavlov • Studied digestive system; first Russian Nobel Prize (1904) • Demonstrated associative learning via salivary conditioning • Founder of Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s study of dog’s digestive systems opened the door to classical conditioning

5. Classical Conditioning • Classical conditioning: Type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events • Neutral stimulus (NS): In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning • Unconditioned response (UR): In classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth) • Unconditioned stimulus (US): in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers an unconditioned response (UR)

6. Classical Conditioning • Acquisition • Initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response • Extinction • Diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS) • Spontaneous recovery • Reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

7. Classical Conditioning

8. Classical Conditioning • Generalization • Tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses • Discrimination • Learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus (which predicts the US) and other irrelevant stimuli

9. Classical Conditioning

10. Applications of Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s Legacy • Consensus among psychologists that classical conditioning is basic learning form • Many other responses to many other stimuli can be classically conditioned in many other organisms. • Pavlov demonstrated how a learning process can be studied objectively. • Classical conditioning is a basic form of learning that applies to all species.

11. Applications of Classical Conditioning • Pavlov’s principles are used to influence human health and well-being • Areas of consciousness, motivation, emotion, health, psychological disorders, therapy • Addicts counseled to avoid stimuli that may trigger cravings • Pairing particular taste with drug that influences immune responses may eventually lead to response from taste alone.

12. Applications of Classical Conditioning • Pavlov’s work also provided a basis for Watson’s ideas that human emotions and behaviors, though biologically influenced, are mainly conditioned responses. • Watson applied classical conditioning principles in his studies of “Little Albert” to demonstrate how specific fears might be conditioned. Used in advertising • When you hear “$5 footlong” you automatically think of what food chain?

13. Operant Conditioning • Behavior operates on the environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli. • Organisms associate their own actions with consequences. • Actions followed by reinforcement increase; those followed by punishments often decrease.

14. Operant Conditioning • Skinner • Expanded on Thorndike’s law of effect • Developed behavioral technology and principles of behavior control • Designed and used the Skinner box for experiments and recorded responses A Skinner box Inside the box, the rat presses a bar for a food reward. Outside, a measuring device (not shown above) records the animal’s accumulated responses.

15. Operant Conditioning

16. Operant Conditioning • Everyday behaviors are continually reinforced and shaped. • Reinforcement: Any event that strengthens a preceding response • Shaping: Gradually guiding toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

17. Operant Conditioning • Primary: Is unlearned; innately reinforcing stimuli • Conditioned (secondary): Gains power through association with primary reinforcer • Immediate: Occurs immediately after a behavior • Delayed: Involves time delay between desired response of and delivery of reward

18. Operant Conditioning • Reinforcement schedule • Includes pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced • Continuous reinforcement schedule • Involves reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs • Partial (intermittent) reinforcement • Includes schedule reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

19. Operant Conditioning • Fixed- ratio schedule: In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses. • Variable-ratio: Schedule in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. • Fixed-interval schedule: In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed. • Variable-interval schedule: In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

20. Operant Conditioning

21. Operant Conditioning • Punishment administers an undesirable consequence or withdraws something desirable in an attempt to decrease the frequency of a behavior (a child’s disobedience). • Positive punishment • Presenting a negative consequence after an undesired behavior is exhibited, making the behavior less likely to happen in the future • Negative punishment • Removing a desired stimulus after particular undesired behavior is exhibited, resulting in reducing behavior in future

22. Applications of Operant Conditioning • At school: Computer and adaptive learning software used in teaching and learning • In sports: Behavioral methods implemented in shaping behavior in athletic performance • At work: Rewards successfully used to increase productivity • At home: Basic rules of shaping used in parenting

24. Biological Constraints on Conditioning • Limits on classical conditioning • Garcia and Koelling’s taste-aversion research • Animals and humans seem biologically prepared to learn some associations rather than others • Conditioning is stronger when the CS is ecologically relevant • Genetic predisposition to associate CS with a US that follows predictably and immediately is adaptive

25. Biological Constraints on Conditioning • Limits on operant conditioning • Nature limits species’ capacity for operant conditioning • Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive • Instinctive drift occurs as animals revert to biologically predisposed patterns

26. Cognition Processes and Classical Conditioning • Mental information that guides behavior is acquired through cognitive learning. • Animal learning of predictability of event (Rescorla and Wagner, 1972) • British children conditioning of ice-cream associated characters (Field, 2006) • Adult gut-level liking for characters associated with positive stimuli (Olson and Fazio, 2001) • Stronger likes and dislikes when notice and awareness of associations learned (Shanks, 2010)

27. Cognition Processes and Operant Conditioning • Skinner • Discounted importance of cognition • Evidence of cognitive processes • Animal response on fixed-interval reinforcement schedule • Development of cognitive map in rats (latent learning) • Destruction of intrinsic motivation by excessive rewards

28. Learning by Observation • Observational learning • Higher animals learn without direct experience by watching and imitating others • Bandura • Pioneer researcher of observational learning • Modeling • Bobo doll experiment • Vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishment

29. Learning by Observation • Mirror neurons • Include frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so • Brain’s mirroring of another’s action • May enable imitation and empathy

30. Applications of Observational Learning • Prosocial effects • Behavior modeling enhances learning of communication, sales, and customer service skills in new employees • Modeling nonviolent behavior prompts similar behavior in others • Across seven countries, viewing prosocial media increased later helping behavior • Socially responsive toddlers tend to have strong internalized conscience as preschoolers

31. Applications of Observational Learning • Antisocial effects • Abusive parents may have aggressive children • Watching TV and videos may teach children • Bullying is effective tool for controlling others • Free and easy sex has little later consequences • Men should be tough; women should be gentle • Violence-viewing effect