The 17 th Century

1. The 17th Century Politics and the Thirty Years’ War

2. The Thirty Years War:Origins • Although the Peace of Augsburg (1555) had settled the conflict between Catholic and Lutheran, a religious cold war existed in Germany • This situation was further strained by the spread of Calvinism in the empire • This began about 1563 and by the end of the century many German princes followed the precepts of Calvin, with the two most important being the Electors of the Palatinate and Brandenburg • Although one would imagine, the Protestant “cousins” would ally themselves against the hated Catholics, in fact, the hatred the Calvinists and Lutherans had for each other was greater than that toward the Catholics

3. The Thirty Years War:Politics • Into this “Cold War” between the faiths, political events slowly set the stage for war • Formation of the Protestant Union (1608) • Led by Frederick IV of the Palatinate, the prime Calvinist prince in the empire • Cleves-Jülich succession crisis in 1609 • Formation by Bavaria of the Catholic League (1609) • Led by Duke Maximilian of Bavaria • War did not break, but a result was the division of the Empire into two distrustful armed camps waiting for the next spark

4. The Thirty Years War:Ferdinand of Styria • That spark was the succession of Ferdinand, archduke of Styria, to the imperial throne • Very pious Catholic and was heavily influenced by the Jesuits • This is in contrast to his predecessors Rudolf II and Matthias • With the latter’s incapacity, Ferdinand took over most of the reins of government

5. The Thirty Years War:Ferdinand of Styria • One of those was the kingdom of Bohemia, predominantly Protestant • In 1609, Rudolf II granted toleration to the Protestants in Bohemia: the burghers were Lutheran while the peasants were Catholic) • Initially accepted by the Bohemian estates in 1617, he soon began a process of re-Catholicizing Bohemia • The Estates resisted, and as the title of King was elective, the estates disposed Ferdinand • “Defenestration of Prague” (May 1618) • The Estates offer the title to Frederick V of the Palatinate who accepts, thus sparking the conflict known as the Thirty Years’ War

6. The Bohemian Phase: 1618-1625 • The young Frederick V, only a lad in his early twenties accepts throne of Bohemia • Much of Europe looked upon Frederick, to be known to history as the “Winter King” for his short reign, with hesitation • Many including his father-in-law, King James I of England, saw it as a fool’s errand • Ferdinand, with the support of the Catholic League, invades Bohemia to reclaim his lost kingdom • Frederick and his forces are defeated at the Battle of White Mountain outside Prague on 8 November 1620

7. The Bohemian Phase: 1618-1625 • At the same time, soldiers of Hapsburg Spain invade the Palatinate, conquering it by 1622 • Important: Capture of the Palatinate by Spanish forces secured link between the Netherlands, Switzerland, and Italy – the famous Spanish Road • Maximilian of Bavaria also claims part of the Palatinate, plus the Electoral dignity • Ferdinand declares Bohemia a heredity Hapsburg possession • Truce between the Dutch and Spanish expires and conflict resumes

8. The Danish Phase: 1625-1629 • With the defeat of Frederick and his supporters in Bohemia and Germany and with an large Imperial army deployed in Germany, Ferdinand’s, and thus Hapsburg, power is on the rise • Christian IV of Denmark intervenes on the Protestant side to reverse the Imperialist advance and sends his army into northern Germany • Ferdinand counters by appointing Albrecht von Wallenstein, a Bohemian noble, as commander of the Imperial forces • An enigma, Wallenstein has at his disposal an army of 140,000, unheard of up to that time • Wallenstein defeats the Danes and occupies several north German states

9. Danish Phase: 1625-1629 • Protestant forces are in full retreat and Ferdinand is at the height of his powers • Issues in March of 1629 the Edict of Restitution • Prohibits Calvinist worship in the Empire & restores all Catholic church property taken by the Protestant Princes over the past 75 years, since the Treaty of Passau in 1552 • Now as Ferdinand’s increased power, including having Wallenstein’s army at his disposal, this frightens the German Princes • As always, their goals are to maintain their “liberties” and so they force the reduction of the Imperial Army and have Wallenstein dismissed (August 1630)

10. Swedish Phase: 1630-1635 • However, as Ferdinand attempts to consolidate his power over Germany, Sweden is watching with a wary eye • So in July of 1630 Sweden feels compelled to intervene in the conflict to protect not only Swedish interests, but also to save the Lutheran faith

11. King Gustavus Adolphus (1611-1635) • Able and effective monarch • Restored Swedish power in the Baltic • The “Lion of the North” • Brilliant military commander • New tactical synthesis

12. Swedish Operations • Gustavus Adolphus and his forces land in Germany in July 1630 • Establish base in Pomerania and spends the rest of 1630 and most of 1631 maneuvering throughout northern and central Germany • Initial goal was to raise the siege of Magdeburg

13. Siege of Magdeburg • Ally of Gustavus and major Protestant base • Under siege by main Imperialist army • Captured on 20 May 1631 • Sacked and completely destroyed • Nearly 20,000 are slain (3,000 soldiers and 17,000 civilians) and only the cathedral remains of the burned city • Its destruction convinces many Protestant princes who were on the fence to ally with Gustavus

14. Battle of Breitenfeld(17 September 1631) • Major Protestant victory • Imperial army under Count de Tilly is destroyed • 2/3’s of army is lost plus all artillery and 120 standards • Victory of the new tactical synthesis over the old tactics • With Imperial defeat, most of central Germany falls to the Swedes who establish HQ’s at Mainz

15. Battle of Lützen(17 November 1632) • After Breitenfeld, Wallenstein is recalled • Spends most of 1632 maneuvering through Germany trying the engage Gustavus • Makes mistake of sending his army into winter quarters, which Gustavus attacks • Swedes are victorious as Wallenstein abandons the field of battle • The price of victory is Gustavus Adolphus, as he is killed in battle • Major turning point - the Imperial cause was severely weakened, but the loss of Gustavus was a greater blow as it evened the playing field

16. Battle of Nördlingen(6 September 1634) • With the loss of Gustavus, Swedish policy is now directed by Axel Oxenstierna • Swedish forces and their allies campaign throughout southern Germany • Combined Spanish/Imperial army under the command of Ferdinand of Hungary and Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand (Fate of Wallenstein) engage the main Swedish army at Nördlingen • Swedish army is decisively defeated, securing southern Germany for the Catholic cause • Swedes retreat to their bases in northern Germany

17. Franco-Swedish Phase: 1635-1648 • With the defeat at Nördlingen, many of Sweden’s German allies make peace with the Emperor (Peace of Prague, 30 May 1635), who in return rescinds the Edict of Restitution • Within two years Ferdinand is dead, replaced by his son Ferdinand III • The Swedes, however, continue the war in Germany with French support • No longer in the shadows, France openly campaigns against the Imperialists and Spain changing the focus of the conflict

18. Franco-Swedish Phase: 1635-1648 • Led by Cardinal Richelieu, France declares war on Spain in 1635 and begins operations in Germany • For the next ten years, France & Sweden campaign throughout Germany, the Low Countries and Italy against the forces of the Hapsburgs • Battle of Rocroi (May 1643) • Major French victory • Famous Army of Flanders is destroyed and Spanish military power is forever weakened

19. The Peace of Westphalia • By 1643 all parties recognize that peace was needed • Two peace conferences were established • Frankfurt Conference • January 1643 • Meeting of the German princes, including most of the Electors, to resolve the mainly German issues and decide how to deal with the foreign powers • The Foreign powers met at Münster & Osnabrück in Westphalia • France, Spain, and other Catholic states made their base at Münster • Sweden and her allies met at Osnabrück

20. The Peace of Westphalia • Comprised of 128 Articles • Recognized Calvinism as the third religion of the Empire • Restored the territory and creates a new Electoral dignity for the son of the Winter King - Bavaria retains the original Electoral dignity

21. The Peace of Westphalia • France gains parts of western Germany, part of Alsace, and the three cities of Metz, Toul, & Verdun - thus, France gains control over these three Rhine crossings plus a say in Imperial affairs • Sweden gains Pomerania and several cities in northern Germany • The Dutch and Swiss gain their complete independence

22. The Peace of Westphalia • The three hundred or so states of the Holy Roman Empire are recognized as sovereign, free to pursue their own foreign policies • Brings to an end of the HRE as a political entity • Allows for German disunity for the next 200 years • The Austrian Hapsburg’s attempts to control Germany are thwarted - forced to expand to the south-east • Spain loses it position of preeminence in Europe • France now becomes the dominant power in Europe

23. The Peace of Westphalia • Made clear that religion and politics were now separate worlds • Pope was completely ignored during the negotiations and was further ignored when he stated that the Peace invalid and non-binding for all time • Most important: establishes a system that will exist with some modification until the present day

24. Conclusion • With the end of the war, France is now the dominant power in Europe • With her young king, Louis XIV, France will dominate the politics and culture of Western Europe until Louis’ death in 1715 • It will become the Age of Louis XIV and his political style, Absolutism will become the norm on which Europe is ruled