Lecture Fifteen

1. Lecture Fifteen Substitution, Ellipsis and Emphasis

2. Substitution • Nominal substitution • Verbal substitution • Clausal substitution • .

3. Nominal substitution • One, ones • I need a nail/one. • If you want a typewriter, they will provide you with one. • Have you any knife? I need a sharp one. • There are good films as well as bad ones. • I wish I’d bought a few jars of honey. Did you notice the ones they were selling. • I prefer red roses to white ones, but my wife likes both. (* both ones) • If there’s any difficulty about cars, we can bring our own. (* nour own ones) • You have four children. I have only two. (* two ones)

4. Cf. I need a good dictionary, but I can’t afford one. • I need this dictionary, but I can’t afford it. • I have a new dictionray and several old ones. • Judy broke the coffee-pot, so she has to by another (one). • Some of your answers were correct, but I can’t remember which (one). • Cf. One can’t be too careful in matters like this. • My old car is much better than the new one. • I don’t want too many copies. One is enough.

5. Third person pronoun, demonstrative • Mary was by far the best speaker, and so everyone expected that she would win the prize. • Ten percent of insomniacs sleep soundly when they come to a sleep clinic. • The islanders pay all their lives on insurance policies for expensive funerals. • I read his first novel, and that (novel) was boring too. • The paitings of Gauguin’s Tahiti period are more famous than those (paintings) he painted in France.

6. All, both, some, any, each, enough, several, none, many, much, (a) few, (a) little, the other, others, another, either, neither • Can you get me some nails? I need some. • I don’t want any more food. I’ve had enough. • A: Can you give me a few nails? I need one. • B: I’ll get you some soon. • When the children entered, eahc (of the children)/(child) was given a small present. • Some equipment has been damaged, but none (of the equipment) has been lost. • Both of the engine had been hit, and neither (of the engines)/(engine) could be relied upon to bring us safely home. • Her cousins go to the same school as she did, and all (of her cousins)/(her cousins) want to become doctors.

7. the same, the kind, the sort • Slang disppears quickly, especially the juvenile sort. • A: Can I have a cup of black coffee with sugar, please? • B: Give the same, please. • I want my steak rare and David wants his the same. • Yesterday I felt under the weather and today I feel the same.

8. Verbal subsitution • Do, do so • A: Have they moved the furniture? • B: They have done the desks, but that’s all so far. • I didn’t touch the television set, but Peter might have (done). • Martin drives a car, and his sister does, too. • Paula looks very happy. She seems happier now than she did. (BE) • Paula looks very happy. She seems happier now than she seemed last time we met. (AE)

9. He smokes like a chimmey. Does his brother do so? • They planned to reach the top of the mountain, but nobody knows if they did (so). • You can take the train back to Madrid, but I shouldn’t (do so) until tomorrow morning • As no one else has succeeded in solving the mystery, I’ll attempt to (do so) myself.

10. Clausal substitution • So, not • Betty’s work is not yet consistent in style and quality, but will no doubt become so. • If he’s a cirminal, it’s his parents who ha • ve made him so. • Thye say he will come tonight. If so, the meeting will be held tomorrow. If not, there won’t be any meeting tomorrow. • A: Do you think he’ll come tomorrow? • B: Yes, I think so. / No, I think not. • A: Will Oxford win the next boat race? • B: I hope so/not. • Believe, guess, imagine, reckon, suspect, expect, hope, presume, suppose, think

11. A: Is your brother going with you? • B: Perhaps not/Possibly not/Surely not. • A: I didn’t stop him. • B: Why not? • A: I like playing football. • B: So do I. /So does my brother. / so did my father. • A: The students all work hard. • B: So they do.

12. Ellipsis • (I) hope he’s there. • Jill owns a Volvo and Fred (owns) a BMW. • I know that we haven’t yet set the record straight, but we will (set the record straight) • (I) Told you so. • (You) Want a drink, do you? • (I’m) Sorry I couldn’t be there. • (I’ll) See you later. • (Are you) In trouble? • (Is) Anything the matter? • I believe (that) you are mistaken. • We’re staying there (for) another three weeks. • I’m happy if you are (happy). .

13. Ellipsis in coordinate constructions • John must have been playing football and Mary (must have been) doing her homework. • George will take the course and Bob may (take the course). • George will (take the course), and Bob may, take the course. • John will meet my family tonight and (John) will (meet my family) again tomorrow. • John likes (Mary), but Peter hates, Mary. • There are four flights to New Yoirk today. Let’s take the earliest (flight). • Old (men) and young men were invited. • A government of and by and for the exploiting classes cannot be popular among the people.

14. Ellipsis in complex sentences • (It is) No/Small wonder they all loved the boy dearly. • I am prepared to meet them when (they like) and where they like. • While (I was) wating, I was readign some old magazines. • Mike has prepared his lesson, but I know that Peter hasn’t (prepared his lesson). • Tell him that I will call to see him and (that I will) have lunch with him. • Someone has used my car, but I don’t know who (has used my car). • I don’t’t know when (I shall meet him) and where I shall meet him.

15. Information structure • Given information • New information • A distinct and almost overwhelming beat is found in rock music. An easily recognizable rhythm exists in each song. An overpowering emotional message is expressed by the music.

16. Information focus • The principle of end focus • E.g. The duck gave my aunt the teapot. • The principle of end weight • Cf. I saw a man with a scar across his face trying to escape with a bag he had snatched from a lady on my way home yesterday. • I saw on my way home yesterday a man with a scar across his face trying to escape with a bag he had snatched from a lady. • Cf. To produce a fairly short one-volume introduction to semantics which might serve the needs of students in several disciplines and might be of interest to the general reader was my intention. • It was my intention to produce a fairly short one-volume introduction to semantics which might serve the needs of students in several disciplines and might be of interest to the general reader.

17. Postponement • Passive voice • Purchasing a house is not always smooth and easy, but the difficulties will be lessened by carefully anticipating and planning for what lies ahead – from signing the contract through buying to taking actual possession. First, you and the seller draw up a contract establishing the purchase price and the date on which the sale will be completed. Before signing and making the down payment, you should get a lawyer’s advice about the legality and adequacy of the contract. Your lawyer can also perform a title search, that is, make sure that no one other than the seller has a claim on the house. Your next step is …

18. Extraposition • To make fun of a disabled man is not funny at all. • -- It is not funny at all to make fun of a disabled man. • That she should reject your proposal surprised me. • -- It surprised me that she should reject your proposal. • What his response will be doesn’t matter. • == It doesn’t matter what his response will be. • It appears/seems that … • It is said/reported that … • He found it annoying that his neighbour kept calling him by the wrong number. • They tried to put it into my head that he was the right person for the job.

19. Discontinuity • She is the only girl in my class who can play the guitar. • The time will come when you regret making the decision. • She was too shocked at the sight of murder to explain to the police.

20. Other types • He gave me the teapot. • -- He gave the teapot to me. • I want you to put your name, class number and course code on top of the answer sheet. • -- I want you to put on top of the answer sheet your name, class number and course code.

21. Fronting • Into a large crowd of spectators the plane dived. • An honest man he has always been and an honest man he will forever be. • A lovely daughter you’ve got! • He has promised to help us, and help us he will.

22. Inversion • Partial inversion • Never have I seen such a rude man. • Hardly had I reached home when it started to rain. • Under no circumstances can you underestimate your rival. • Only with the help of his children did he manage to pull himself together.

23. Complete inversion • Here comes the bus. • From upstairs came suppressed moans and muffled sobs.

24. Cleaving • It is John that/who/whom you can consult. • It was John who released the president’s illness to the reporters. • It was at the party that John released the president’s illness … • What they want is money, not your life. • What he can do now is (to) apologize to her in person.

25. Existential sentence • There is a grocery across the street. • Across the street is a grocery. • There remain three chapters before I finish the book. • There exist many ancient temples of this kind on the shores of the Mediterranean. • I don’t want there to be any disturbance during my lunch break. • There being no more business, the chairman dismissed the meeting.