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Teorier om ting (och deras egenskaper)

Teorier om ting (och deras egenskaper). Förra föreläsningen: Egenskaper Universalieproblemet (hur förklara likhet i språk och värld?). Tre lösningsförlag Universalie-realism Tropteori Nominalism. Tre angreppssätt Analysera Anta som primitivt Förneka. Teorier om ting.

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Teorier om ting (och deras egenskaper)

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  1. Teorier om ting (och deras egenskaper) • Förra föreläsningen: Egenskaper • Universalieproblemet (hur förklara likhet i språk och värld?) • Tre lösningsförlag • Universalie-realism • Tropteori • Nominalism • Tre angreppssätt • Analysera • Anta som primitivt • Förneka

  2. Teorier om ting 1. Vad är ett “ting”? 2. Teorier om ting Ting är ej fundamentala: • Substans/substrat-teorin (komplexa sakförhållanden) • Bundle-teorin (egenskaper relaterade i en bundle) • Aristoteliska substanser (Armstrong States ofAffairs) Ting är fundamentala: ”blobs” 3. Bradley’s regress

  3. 1. Ett ting? Existens: Det finns ting. Kontingens: Ett tings existens är normalt kontingent. Partikularitet: Ting har under hela sin existens en bestämd position i rummet vid varje tidpunkt det existerar. (Jfr. universale) Egenskapsbärare: Ting kan inte exemplifieras, men exemplifierar många egenskaper. Monopol: Ting monopoliserar rum. (Obs! Co-location.) Tidslighet: Ting existerar över tid (dvs. ej för evigt) Föränderligt: Under tiden för sin existens förändras ett ting. Vad är ett ting? Vad för sorts entitet eller entiteter grundar ett ting och vad för sorts relationer måste dessa entiteter stå i för att konstituera ett ting?

  4. 2. Substans/substrat-teorin J. Locke Substrat-teorin Konstituenter: egenskaper och substrat Relation: Egenskaper är instantierade I substratet. Substratet exemplifierar egenskaperna. …when we talk or think of any particular sort of corporeal substances, such as horse, stone, etc., though the idea we have of either of them be but the complication of those several simple ideas of sensible qualities, which we used to find united in the thing called horse or stone; yet, because we cannot conceive how they should subsist alone, nor one in another, we suppose them existing in and supported by some common subject; which support we denote by the name substance, though it be certain we have no clear idea of that thing we suppose a support. Had the poor Indian Philosopher (who imagined that the Earth also wanted something to bear it up) but thought of this word Substance, he needed not to have been at the trouble to find an Elephant to support it, and a Tortoise to support the Elephant: The word Substance would have done it effectually. And he that enquired, might have taken it for as good an Answer from an Indian Philosopher. That Substance, without knowing what it is, is that which supports the Earth, as we take it for a sufficient Answer, and a good doctrine from our European Philosophers, That Substance without knowing what it is, is that which supports Accidents. So that of Substance we have no idea of what it is, but only a confused obscure one of what it does.

  5. Argument för substans/substrat-teorin …that which unites ”…we think that ordinary objects (tables, horses, stones, etc.) have properties. Moreover, it seems to us as if these properties are united in some way. This suggests that there is something that plays the role of uniting the disparate properties. This is substance.” …that which supports ”Consider the properties of ordinary objects. We cannot conceive of these properties just being in the world… if I can imagine these properties at all, then it is only as they are instantiated by some entity or other.” …that which individuates ”…suppose the table is in a room full of tables, each of which has the same properties as our original table…then it is unclear what it is that makes it true that we have many tables…the table in my office is different from all the other tables because it is a different substance. It is the uniqueness of substances that plays the requisite role of individuating objects from one another.” J. Tallant, 119-120

  6. Substantiella(!) problem I Motsägelsefull natur. Har en substans egenskaper eller saknar den egenskaper? Möjligt svar: substans/substrat har inte egenskaper i betydelsen att de bär/ grundar egenskaper men är själva distinkta från egenskaperna. Substans/substrat har inga essentiella egenskaper Möjlig invändning på svaret: Har inte substans den essentiella egenskapen ”att vara egenskapsbärare”?

  7. Substantiella(!) Problem II Epistemiskt problem. Hur kan vi veta något om substrat? Möjligt svar: vi kan uppleva substrat indirekt genom att uppleva ting som distinkta (substrat som individuator) Men…

  8. Substantiella(!) problem II (forts.) ”For the most part, if people agree that p is an individual, then p is an individual. We’re good at individuating particulars. Where we have such a reliable process, we ought to have some explanation of why the process is so reliable; an explanation of how it is that the presence of a substance leads us to detect it and individuate it from others so reliably. But, of course, because we do not think that we are perceiving that the substance itself has properties, so we cannot think that we are perceiving the substance itself directly and that means that we have no explanation of the reliablity of our judgments about individuals.” (Tallant, p. 123)

  9. 3. Bundle-teorin Konstituenter: egenskaper Relation: Egenskaper står i compresence-relationer till varandra.

  10. Problem I: Kan ej hantera predikation GREGER Greger är röd Greger är rund Greger väger 50 kg Greger är 30 cm i diameter RÖD RUND 30 cm 50 kg Vad refererar “Greger” till? Vad för relation råder mellan “Greger” och de egenskaper vilka han tillskrivs?

  11. Problem 2: kan ej hantera förändring GREGER T1 GREGER(?) T2 RÖD SVART RUND RUND 30 cm 30 cm 50 kg

  12. Problem III: Max Blacks värld Klot a Klot b Röd Rund 50 kg 30 cm i diameter • Röd • Rund • 50 kg • 30 cm i diameter Nödvändigtvis, för varje konkret objekt a och b, och för varje egenskap , om är en egenskap hos a ommär en egenskap hos b, så är a numeriskt identisk med b.

  13. Armstrong states of affairs Substrat/substans OCH bundle-teorier får problem att förklara skillnad mellan följande påståenden: Göteborg ligger öster om Borås Borås ligger öster om Göteborg Let a love b, and b love a. The two states of affairs are presumably independent. Either could have occurred without the other.Yet the two different states of affairs involve exactly the same constituents. How are they to be differentiated?

  14. Sakförhållanden lösningen? Ett ting, och hela universum är sakförhållanden… ”A state of affairs exists if and only if a particular has a property, or a relation holds between two or more particulars” (Armstrong 1993:429) Sakförhållandenbeståraven “thin particular” ochenegenskapeller relation: The thin particular is the particular considered in abstraction from all its properties. Although not bare, it is very thin indeed. (But you can be thin without being bare.) For me, all thin particulars, although numerically different, are, as it were, indistinguishably different. Particulars…have no mysterious inner and particularized essence that marks off one from another and accounts for their numerical difference. The secret of numerical difference is simply numerical difference… Notice, however, that it is not hidden, as Locke had it hidden. Even in our most basic, most elementary, perceptions we are aware of particulars, though of course particulars as having certain properties and relations, that is: particulars in states of affairs.”

  15. Mereologisk vs. icke-mereologisk komposition Mereologisk komposition (BT, ST): a+b+c = c+a+b Icke-mereologisk komposition (Armstrong): Rab≠ Rba ”Göteborg ligger öster om Borås” ”Borås ligger öster om Göteborg” (Rab) (Rba)

  16. 3. Problem: Bradley’s regress States of affairs are thought to labour under a certain further difficulty, though. It is a difficulty most usually articulated for the particular case of an ontology of particulars and universals, but seems to be a general one. It is the difficulty of predication, the difficulty of the nexus of instantiation (as they say in Iowa), the difficulty of the non-relational tie (W. E. Johnson and P. F. Strawson), the difficulty of the formal distinction (as Scotus put it), the difficulty of participation (as Plato had it). Is not bringing the constituents of a state of affairs, the particulars, the properties and the relations, together into states of affairs, a further relation in which all the constituents stand? But then the new relation is just a further element which requires to be integrated along with the other constituents. Most contemporary opponents of universals take comfort from the argument. Often it seems to be the only argument they have to set against multifarious difficulties facing their particular variety of Nominalism. Armstrong 1993:432

  17. Bradleys regress i ett sanningsteoretiskt perspektiv Om ett (kontingent) påstående är sant måste det finnas något i världen som gör det sant (det måste ha en sanningsgörare) OCH något är en sanningsgörare för ett påstående om existensen av sanningsgöraren nödvändiggör sanningen hos påståendet. <a är f> = falskt <a är F>= sant a, F? a, F Existensen av bollen och av rödhet nödvändiggör inte sanningen hos <Bollen är röd>. Mer behövs. Armstrong: Vi behöver sakförhållandet att bollen är röd. Fråga: vad är skillnaden mellan en värld i vilken sakförhållandet existerar, och en värld där bara bollen och rödhet existerar?

  18. Skillnaden är att det i världen där påståendet är sant existerar en relation som håller samman a och F – en ”uniter” (U). Men existensen av a, F och U tycks heller inte nödvändiggöra sanningen hos påståendet. Vi tycks kräva något som håller samman dessa, a, F, U U1. Men existensen av a, F, U och U1 tycks heller inte nödvändiggöra sanningen hos påståendet etc. ad infinitum. a, F, U, U1 etc. ad infinitum a, F, U a, F

  19. Karta över lösningsförslag Maurin (2012:798) Bradley’s regress

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