John Locke (1632-1704)

1. John Locke (1632-1704) Fourth Lecture Knowledge

2. Knowledge Part 1 Part 1 1) Knowledge in General 2) Degrees of Knowledge 3) The extent of Human Knowledge 4) Reality of Knowledge Part 2 5) Knowledge of Existence 6) Knowledge of existence of God 7) Knowledge of the Existence of Other Things 8) Reason 9) Faith and Reason

3. 1. Knowledge in General All knowledge is about ideas only Connection of and agreement of any of our ideas. Disagreement of and repugnancy of any of our ideas.

4. Knowledge of Ideas 1.1) Identity or diversity 1.2) Relation 1.3) Co-existence or necessary connection 1.4) Real existence

5. 1.1 Identity Principle of identity: A is A (two things that are the same are identical) Principle of indiscernibility: (two things that are identical are the same thing) Distinct ideas

6. 1.2 Relations Ideas are either identical or distinct. If we could only know this about ideas, then our knowledge would be limited. Therefore, most of our knowledge about ideas is how they are related.

7. 1.3 Co-existence in Substance One important way ideas might be related is as necessarily co-existing in substances. In other words, two ideas might be a part of a particular substance For instance, yellowness and weight are ideas that are necessarily connected with the substance we call “Gold”.

8. 1.4 Real Existence Do our ideas relate to (or correspond to) some real thing in the world?

9. Examples (1) Blue is blue. Blue is not yellow. (2) The angles of a triangle are equal to two right angles. (3) Water is made up of hydrogen and oxygen. (4) God exists. God does not exists.

10. 2. Degrees of Knowledge 2.1) Intuition 2.2) Demonstrations 2.3) Sensitive Knowledge

11. 1.1 Intuition Intuitions are immediate perceptions of the mind. They are self-evident and require no further support for them to count as knowledge. They are immediately present to the mind and thus immediately justified.

12. 1.2 Demonstrations Beliefs that are derived from proofs. They are not intuitive but rather require several steps consisting of other intuitive claims.

13. Demonstrations Not as clear as intuitive beliefs. “like a face reflected by several mirrors one to another, where, as long as it retains the similitude and agreement with the object, it produces a knowledge; but it is still, in every successive reflection, with a lessening of that perfect clearness and distinctness which is in the first;” (p.80)

14. Knowledge Intuition Demonstration Everything else opinion and faith “ These two, viz. intuition and demonstration, are the degrees of our knowledge; whatever comes short of one of these, with what assurance soeverembraced, is but faith or opinion, but not knowledge” (p.81).

15. 1.3 Sensitive Knowledge Knowledge through our sense of the existence of external objects. Knowledge of the existence of external objects that cause the ideas in our minds are beyond doubt. However, they are not as certain as intuition or demonstration.

16. 3. Extent of Human Knowledge Limited by our ideas Our perception of agreements and disagreements limits our knowledge. Our intuitive knowledge does not extend to all our ideas. Our demonstrative knowledge is limited by our inability to perceive all the relations between ideas. Our sensitive knowledge is limited by our actual experiences. Conclusion: Knowledge is much more narrow than our ideas.

17. How Far Does Our Knowledge Reach? 3.1 Identity and diversity of ideas 3.2 Co-existence 3.3 Relations 3.4 Reality

18. 3.1 Identity and Diversity of ideas As far as the ideas themselves.

19. 3.2 Co-existence Very Short! The connection of simple ideas that make up our complex idea of substance is tenuous. We simply perceive that they are co-existent in a substance, but we do not perceive any necessary connections. We know ideas or secondary qualities but we do not comprehend the more detailed connections between the object itself and the ideas. We cannot have perfect knowledge of the primary qualities.

20. Locke’s Skepticism “In vain, therefore, shall we endevour to discover by our ideas (the only true way of certain and universal knowledge) what other ideas are to be found constantly joined with that of our complex idea of any substance: since we neither know the real constitution of the minute parts on which their qualities do depend; nor, did we know them, could we discover any necessary connexion between them and any of the secondary qualities: which is necessary to be done before we can certainly know their necessary co-existence” (pp. 87-88).

21. Knowledge of the powers of substances Extends only to our experiences.

22. 3.3 Relations This area of knowledge has the greatest scope. It is hard to determine how far human knowledge can reach through relation of ideas. It depends on what is possible, how hard we work and our creativity and intelligence.

23. Knowledge of Existence Intuitive Knowledge of my own existence Demonstrative Knowledge of God’s existence Sensitive knowledge of the existence of other things.

24. 4. The Reality of Knowledge Objection: If knowledge is based on our ideas (identity, diversity and relations) how can we know that what we think we know is real? Castles in the air?

25. Locke’s Problem Locke wants to claim that what we know is connected to reality – is of the world. However what we know directly is not the world or the real, but merely our ideas. “It is evident the mind knows not things immediately, but only by the intervention of the ideas it has of them” (92).

26. Locke's’ Solution There has to be a connection or conformity between our ideas and the reality of things, i.e., world. But, how can we know that such a conformity exists, if we have no way to compare our ideas with the things themselves?

27. First, Simple Ideas Conformity between simple ideas and real things is sufficient for knowledge.

28. Second, Complex Ideas All complex ideas (except substances) are archetypes; they are our creations and thus are not meant to conform to things external to the mind. Mathematics is real and true: “The mathematician considers the truth and properties belonging to a rectangle or circle only as they are in idea in his own mind. For it is possible he never found either of them existing mathematically, i.e., precisely true, in his life time” (93). Morality is true and real like mathematics.

29. Abstract Knowledge Knowledge of mathematics and morals does not require existence. Knowledge and reality only require conformity with the archetypes, which exist in the mind. “Murder deserves death.” if true, is true whether or not anyone commits murder.

30. Third, Complex Ideas Substances Substances have their archetype without us – independent of us. They exist. “Natural Kinds” Our knowledge of these as real things, that is, the conformity of our ideas with reality cannot be guaranteed.