COGNITION

1. Psychology Oswayo Valley High School COGNITION an exercise for and about the brain

2. Introduction Cognitive Psychology One Definition The study of higher mental processes such as attention, language use, memory, perception, problem solving, and thinking. Three Concepts Learning Thinking Remembering “I think, therefore I am”

3. Introduction Cognitive Processes Step #1 - Learning The transforming of information so the nervous system can process it; a relatively permanent change in behavioral tendency that results from experience It is the “input” stage

4. Introduction Cognitive Processes Step #2 - Thinking The maintaining of information over a period of time; the changing and reorganizing of stored information to create new information It is the “processing” stage

5. Introduction Cognitive Processes Step #3 – Remembering The process of obtaining information that has been stored It is the “output” stage

6. Learning

7. Learning, Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning Definition A learning procedure in which associations are made between a natural stimulus and a neutral stimulus Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) John B Watson (1878-1958)

8. Learning, Classical Conditioning • Key Terms/Concepts • Neutral Stimulus: a stimulus that does not • initially elicit any part of the unconditioned • response • Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): an event that • elicits a certain predictable response • typically without previous training • Unconditioned Response (UCR): an • organism’s automatic (or natural) reaction • to a stimulus

9. Learning, Classical Conditioning • Key Terms, cont’d • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): a once-natural • event that elicits a given response after a • period of training in which it has been • paired with an unconditioned stimulus • Conditioned Response (CR): the learned • reaction to a conditioned stimulus

10. Learning, Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s Experiment

11. Learning, Classical Conditioning The Case of Little Albert “Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select—doctor, lawyer, merchant-chief, and yes, even beggar man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors.” (1930, John B. Watson) Watson’s Experiment

12. Learning, Classical Conditioning • Principles of Classical Conditioning • Acquisition of a classically conditioned • response generally occurs gradually • Time of the CS before the UCS • Generalization: process in which a response • spreads from one specific stimulus to other • similar stimuli

13. Learning, Classical Conditioning • Principles of Classical Conditioning, cont’d • Extinction: the gradual loss of an association • over time when the conditioned response is • repeatedly presented without the • unconditional stimulus • Spontaneous recovery: the sudden • reappearance of an extinguished response

14. Learning, Classical Conditioning • Applications of Classical Conditioning • Flooding: exposure to harmless stimulus until • fear response to that stimulus is extinguished • Systematic Desensitization: a pleasant, relaxed • state is associated with gradually increasing • anxiety triggering stimuli

15. Learning, Classical Conditioning • Applications of Classical Conditioning, cont’d • Counter-conditioning: a pleasant stimulus is • paired repeatedly with a fearful one, • counteracting the fear • Pleasant Response • Taste Aversion coulrophobia

16. Learning, Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning Definition Learning in which a certain action is reinforced or punished, resulting in corresponding increases or decreases in learning B F Skinner (1904-1990)

18. Key Terms/Concepts • Reinforcement: stimulus or event that follows • a response and increases the likelihood that • the response will be repeated • Positive: something good is added after • the action • Negative: something bad is taken away • after the action • Primary reinforcer: satisfies a basic • biological need • Secondary reinforcer: paired with a • primary and through classical conditioning has • acquired value and reinforcement

19. Number Time Fixed Ratio Reinforcement after a fixed number of responses Fixed Interval Reinforcement of first response after a fixed amount of time has passed Predictable Variable Interval Reinforcement of first response after varying amounts of time Variable Ratio Reinforcement after varying number of responses Unpredictable

20. Key Terms/Concepts, cont’d • Reward: not the same as reinforcer; something given in • recognition • Punishment: the process of weakening a response by • following it with unpleasant consequences • something desired can be taken away • something undesired can be added • Punishment does not in itself teach acceptable behavior • Punishment tends to work only when guaranteed • Punishment can create anger and hostility • Punishment may be imitated as a way of problem-solving • Punishment is sometimes accompanied by unseen benefits that • maker the behavior more, not less, likely to be repeated Learning, Operant Conditioning

21. Key Terms/Concepts, cont’d • Shaping: the process of gradually refining a response • by successively reinforcing closer approximations of • it; technique in which the desired behavior is • “molded” by first rewarding any act similar to that • behavior and then requiring ever-closer • approximations to the behavior before giving the • reward • Chaining: learned reactions that follow one another • in sequence, each reaction producing the signal for • the next Learning, Operant Conditioning

22. Learning, Social Learning Social Learning Definition Process of altering behavior by observing and imitating the behavior of others; also known as modeling or observational learning Albert Bandura (1925-)

23. Learning, Cognitive Learning Cognitive Learning Definition An approach to the study of learning that emphasizes abstract mental processes and previous knowledge • Key Terms/Concepts • Latent Learning: learning that • is not obvious but goes on • under the surface; it remains • hidden until needed (Tolman, 1930)

24. Learning, Cognitive Learning • Key Terms/Concepts, cont’d • Cognitive Map: a mental image of where one is • located in space • Expectancies: beliefs about our ability to perform • on action and to get the desired reward • Reinforcement Value: the preference for certain • types of reinforcement over other types • Strategies: techniques for problem-solving (Gould)

25. Learning, Cognitive Learning • Principles of Cognitive Learning • Acoustic Codes: recording the memory as a • sequence of sounds • Visual Codes: forming a mental picture • Semantic Codes: making sense of the letters by • figuring out what they might mean OTTFFSSENT

26. Learning, Cognitive Learning • Principles of Cognitive Learning, cont’d • Selective Attention: concentrating on one sensation among many outputs while not completely blocking out others; information that… • Relates to a basic need • Is of personal interest • Is unusual or novel • Feature Extraction: focusing on the significant • characteristics of the information selected for • attention

27. Learning, Cognitive Learning • Principles of Cognitive Learning, cont’d • Elaboration: the process of attaching a maximum • number of associations to an item to be learned • so that it can be retrieved more easily In 1925, lawyer William Jennings Bryan prosecuted John Scopes for teaching evolution and won the case. In1919, many states were won over to the cause of the Eighteenth Amendment, which prohibited the sale of liquor. Fourteen years later the Twenty-First Amendment repealed the Eighteenth. In 1925, lawyer William Jennings Bryan prosecuted a young high school teacher named John Scopes who wanted to give students information about evolution. The trial took on the atmosphere of a circus. It became a free-for-all, with shouting by “liberated” (for that time) college students and young reporters who reflected antireligious feeling that was then erupting in the country. The teacher was found guilty, so Bryan won the case, but he was mocked so much during the trial that some people believe that this led to his death five days later.

28. Learning, Cognitive Learning • Principles of Cognitive Learning, cont’d • Mnemonic Devices: unusual associations made to • aid memory • Method of Location Material to be Learned: grocery list (milk, eggs, celery, etc.) Method of Locations: imagine a familiar location and place the items to be remembered in various areas of that location. It is usually effective to enlarge the items in a bizarre way. How the information is stored: The sink is filled with milk that overflows onto the floor. Giant eggs roll along the tabletop. On the chairs, sitting at attention, are giant celery stalks; they prevent the eggs from falling.

29. Learning, Cognitive Learning • Principles of Cognitive Learning, cont’d • Acronym Material to be Learned: The planets Acronym: Take the first letter of each item on a list and make a word How the information is stored: My Mercury Very Venus Educated Earth Mother Mars Just Jupiter Showed Saturn Us Uranus Nine Neptune Planets Pluto

30. Learning, Cognitive Learning • Principles of Cognitive Learning, cont’d • Narrative Chaining Material to be Learned: A part of the brain: the cerebellum, which controls balance Narrative Chaining: Tie together the material to be learned into a story How the information is stored: He hit me in the cerebellum with a brick, and I was thrown off balance….

31. Learning, Cognitive Learning • Principles of Cognitive Learning, cont’d • Principle Learning: learning in which an overall • view (principle) of the material to be learned is • developed so that the material is better • organized • Drill and Practice: “repetition aids learning” • Funnel Approach: learning general concepts • before moving on to specific details

32. learning by association learning by observing and imitating learning through mental processing learning through reinforcement

33. Picture Credits Exercising Brain http://thm-a01.yimg.com/image/eff5a4c1adb9efd4 Brain (with vessels) http://www.alzheimer.ca/english/alzheimer_brain_mini_site/images/02a.jpg Descartes http://math.usask.ca/conicsdemo/DEMO/extensions/images/descartes.jpeg Pavlov http://www.psywww.com/intropsych/ch05_conditioning/05pavlov.jpg Watson http://www.psywww.com/intropsych/ch01_psychology_and_science/01watson.jpg Pavlov – before, during after http://www.northern.ac.uk/learning/NCMaterial/Psychology/lifespan%20folder/PAVLOV.gif Pavlov - diagram http://www.psywww.com/intropsych/ch05_conditioning/05pavlovsdog.jpg Pavlov cartoon http://www.age-of-the-sage.org/psychology/pavlov_conditioning_dogs.gif Little Albert http://cdn-www.cracked.com/articleimages/dan/scientific/albert Marlboro Man http://i44.photobucket.com/albums/f5/atanudotcom/marlboro.jpg Michelin Tire Ad http://aroundthesphere.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/michelin-baby-in-tire-ad.jpg?w=450&h=299

34. Picture Credits Rat with Flag http://www.activityvillage.co.uk/rat_with_flag.gif Honeybee http://honeybeesdisappearing.com/images/honeybees_disappearing_2.jpg Shylock http://www.toptenz.net/wp-content/uploads/2008/09/shylock-classic1.jpg