PA Writing

1. PA Writing Session #2 - Structure

2. What we worked on yesterday • Rundown of the syllabus • Rundown of the writing assignment • Differences between high school, college and university writing • Your expectations (What this writing course teaches you/what would you like to learn?) • Why writing is so important, and what it’s for

3. Today we’ll look at: • What conventions exist relating to structure and flow in basic essay writing • What elements need to be present in introductions, body paragraphs, and conclusions in order for them to be effective • Variations of an argumentative writing assignment in different disciplines **Through the session we’ll be drawing on content from the book ‘Writing Analytically’ by Rosenwasser, Stephen and Babington

4. The Failsafe Method • Let’s draw this out

5. The Hamburger Writing an essay that meets a university level standard draws on some of what is taught in high schools as the “hamburger” format, but its much more complex. **Exercise: As a group we’re going to draw a deluxe, university level hamburger on the white board :)

6. 5 Step Process for Paragraph Development/Essay Flow • Let’s walk through a 5-step process to building a paragraph. Each step of the process will include an explanation of the step and a bit of “model” text to illustrate how the step works. Our finished model paragraph will be about slave spirituals, the original songs that African Americans created during slavery. The model paragraph uses illustration (giving examples) to prove its point. **Through the ‘5-Step Process for Paragraph Development section’ we’ll be using content from the Writing Centre at University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill’s website

7. Step #1 • Step 1. Decide on a controlling idea and create a topic sentence • Paragraph development begins with the formulation of the controlling idea. This idea directs the paragraph’s development. Often, the controlling idea of a paragraph will appear in the form of a topic sentence. In some cases, you may need more than one sentence to express a paragraph’s controlling idea. Here is the controlling idea for our “model paragraph,” expressed in a topic sentence: • Model controlling idea and topic sentence— Slave spirituals often had hidden double meanings.

8. Step #2 • Step 2. Explain the controlling idea • Paragraph development continues with an expression of the rationale or the explanation that the writer gives for how the reader should interpret the information presented in the idea statement or topic sentence of the paragraph. The writer explains his/her thinking about the main topic, idea, or focus of the paragraph. Here’s the sentence that would follow the controlling idea about slave spirituals: • Model explanation—On one level, spirituals referenced heaven, Jesus, and the soul; but on another level, the songs spoke about slave resistance.

9. Step #3 • Step 3. Give an example (or multiple examples) • Paragraph development progresses with the expression of some type of support or evidence for the idea and the explanation that came before it. The example serves as a sign or representation of the relationship established in the idea and explanation portions of the paragraph. Here are two examples that we could use to illustrate the double meanings in slave spirituals: • Model example A— For example, according to Frederick Douglass, the song “O Canaan, Sweet Canaan” spoke of slaves’ longing for heaven, but it also expressed their desire to escape to the North. Careful listeners heard this second meaning in the following lyrics: “I don’t expect to stay / Much longer here. / Run to Jesus, shun the danger. / I don’t expect to stay.” • Model example B— Slaves even used songs like “Steal Away to Jesus (at midnight)” to announce to other slaves the time and place of secret, forbidden meetings.

10. Step #4 • Step 4. Explain the example(s) • Continue the pattern of giving examples and explaining them until all points/examples that the writer deems necessary have been made and explained. NONE of your examples should be left unexplained. You might be able to explain the relationship between the example and the topic sentence in the same sentence which introduced the example. More often, however, you will need to explain that relationship in a separate sentence. Look at these explanations for the two examples in the slave spirituals paragraph: • Model explanation for example A— When slaves sang this song, they could have been speaking of their departure from this life and their arrival in heaven; however, they also could have been describing their plans to leave the South and run, not to Jesus, but to the North. • Model explanation for example B—[The relationship between example B and the main idea of the paragraph's controlling idea is clear enough without adding another sentence to explain it.]

11. Step #5 • Step 5. Complete the paragraph’s idea or transition into the next paragraph • The final movement in paragraph development involves tying up the loose ends of the paragraph and reminding the reader of the relevance of the information in this paragraph to the main or controlling idea of the paper. At this point, you can remind your reader about the relevance of the information that you just discussed in the paragraph. You might feel more comfortable, however, simply transitioning your reader to the next development in the next paragraph. Here’s an example of a sentence that completes the slave spirituals paragraph: • Model sentence for completing a paragraph— What whites heard as merely spiritual songs, slaves discerned as detailed messages. The hidden meanings in spirituals allowed slaves to sing what they could not say. • Notice that the example and explanation steps of this 5-step process (steps 3 and 4) can be repeated as needed. The idea is that you continue to use this pattern until you have completely developed the main idea of the paragraph.

12. What makes for a good Introduction?

13. Introductions • Introductions should raise issues rather than settle them and conclusions should go beyond merely restating what has already been said • The function of introductions: • Define your topic – the issue, question, or problem – and say why it matters • Indicate your method of approach to the topic • Provide necessary background or context • Offer the working thesis (hypothesis) that your paper will develop

14. Introduction – cont. • You don’t need a gimmick to engage your readers, just a genuinely interesting topic • Here you are trying to locate a problem or question within a context that provides background and rationale, culminating in a working thesis • Typical problems that are symptoms of doing too much • Digression • Incoherence (when you’re trying to do too much) • Prejudgment

15. What makes for a good Conclusion?

16. Conclusions • The function of conclusions: • Judgment – “the conclusion normally reconsiders the issue raised by the opening hypothesis and amends that hypothesis, based upon the evidence presented” • Culmination – “you bring things together and ascend to one final statement of your thinking” • Send-off – “a final opening outward of the topic that leads the reader out of the paper with something further to think about”

17. Conclusions – cont. • **strategies for writing effective conclusions: • 1. Pursue implications – consider broader issues, including practical consequences and applications, or future-oriented issues such as avenues for further research • 2. Come full circle – interpret the results fo your analysis in light of the context you established in your intro • 3. Identify limitations – acknowledge restrictions of method or focus in your analysis, and qualify your conclusion (and its implications) accordingly

18. Conclusion – cont. • Watch for: • Redundancy – instead use selective repetition • Raising a totally new point – instead be sure to express the conceptual link between your central conclusion and any implications you may draw, capping judgments must have an obvious lead up throughout your paper • Overstatement • Anticlimax – “if your final answer comes from quoting an authority in place of establishing your own”, instead answer “so what?” as the last statement in your paper

19. Writing Assignments Across Disciplines – What’s Similar & What’s Different?

20. Reflective Writing Writing example in the discipline of Community Services Check this out for information about the structure of reflective writing assignments, and examples of them: http://www.port.ac.uk/departments/studentsupport/ask/resources/handouts/writtenassignments/filetodownload,73259,en.pdf

21. Business Report/Plan Writing example in the discipline of Business Check this out for information about the structure of business report writing assignments, and examples of them: http://owll.massey.ac.nz/assignment-types/business-report.php

22. Lab Reports Writing example in the discipline of Science and Engineering Check this out for information about the structure of lab reports, and examples of them: http://www.writing.utoronto.ca/advice/specific-types-of-writing/lab-report

23. Research Essay Common in the Social Science and Humanities Disciplines We have been and will be talking more about this one in class, stay tuned!