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CHAPTER 15

CHAPTER 15. PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESENCE. THE NATURE OF ADOLESCENCE. Biological and Sociohistorical Foundations

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CHAPTER 15

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  1. CHAPTER 15 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESENCE

  2. THE NATURE OF ADOLESCENCE Biological and Sociohistorical Foundations • G. Stanley’s View – influenced by Darwin, he believed that adolescence is controlled by genetically determined physiological factors – environment is minimal. He coined the term storm-and-stress referring to adolescence as turbulence. • The inventionist view – adolescence is a sociohistorical creation – that it was legislated due to economic considerations.

  3. Today’s Youth • Old centuries and new centuries – a shift in the view of adolescence from negative (old century) to positive (new century). • Generational perceptions and memories – adults perceive adolescents through the eyes of the media and their own experiences. Every generation seems radical. • Heterogeneity – they are not a homogeneous group but are characterized by gender, ethnicity, culture, age, lifestyles, and socioeconomic status.

  4. PUBERTY

  5. Determinants of Puberty • Heredity – the genes determine the timing of puberty, but it can be influenced by environmental factors. • Hormones – the hormonal system consists of powerful chemicals secreted by the endocrine glands, where there is an interaction of the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland, and the gonads (sex glands). Androgens and Estrogens are the main class of male and female hormones respectively. Testosterone impacts male pubertal development, while estradiol impacts female development. The flow of these hormones is reflected in physical changes in both boys and girls. Adrenarche occurs in the adrenal glands as early as six years old, while Gonadarche involves sexual maturation and occurs at approximately 9 to 10 years of age. • Weight and Body Fat – Menarche begins when fat makes up 17 percent of the girl’s body weight.

  6. Growth Spurt – Fifty percent of adult body weight is gained during adolescence. There are also changes in the hip and shoulder configuration, and greater leg length in boys. The facial structure of boys becomes more angular.Sexual Maturation – Characterized by growth of penis, testes, and pubic hair in boys, and breast enlargement, wider hips, and pubic hair in girls.Secular Trends in Puberty – There are patterns over time that change (i.e., in the United States, menarche occurred at an average of 15 years of age at the beginning of the 20th century to 12.5 years today.

  7. Psychological Dimensions – Psychological changes are many and varied during puberty for both males and females. • Body image – Generally, girls are less happy with their bodies during this period than boys. • Menarche and the menstrual cycle – Although there are varied opinions by girls on their feelings, generally it is not as stressful as earlier experts believe. • Early and late maturation – Overall, early-maturing girls have more problems in school, are more independent, whereas late maturers were less satisfied with their bodies until 10th grade.

  8. Pubertal Timing and Health Care – Often when adolescents do not mature in time with their peers, a situation complicated by their social context (sports, dancing, etc.), there can be help through medical care.

  9. SEXUALITY

  10. Developing a Sexual Identity and Sexual Activity – For the adolescent, this is a time to learn how to control and manage sexual arousal, attraction, and intimacy. Their sexual identity involves sexual orientation, activities, interests, and styles of behavior.

  11. Heterosexuality – Studies of adolescents reflect active sexual practices. By age 17 in the United States, 47 percent of adolescents have had sexual intercourse. • Homosexuality – Approximately 4.5 percent of a 35,000-student sample revealed predominant homosexual tendencies. Disclosure of homosexuality is usually made to the mother, and more than half disclose to a sibling. The causes of homosexuality cannot be confirmed. • Most researchers now reject the “choice” theory, and the biological aspect has been honed to the possibility of hormonal levels in the second to fifth month of pregnancy. Sadly, suicide attempts are higher for homosexual adolescents than heterosexual.

  12. Risk Factors for Sexual Problems – The earlier adolescents engage in sexual activity, the higher the likelihood of contracting STDs. Adolescents who live in low-income neighborhoods are more sexually active and have higher pregnancy rates. Contraceptive Use – More adolescents are using contraceptives – 44 percent of girls use the pill, followed by 38 percent using condoms; however, the younger the teenagers, the less likely they are to use contraceptives. Sexually Transmitted Diseases • What are STDs? – diseases contracted through sexual contact, but not limited to vaginal intercourse. • AIDS – caused by a virus, it destroys the human immune system. Its greatest growth is in sub-Saharan Africa. Continued…

  13. Adolescent Pregnancy – The United States has one of the highest teen pregnancy rates in the world. Consequences – Infants of teen mothers are more likely to be of low birthweight, have higher infant mortality, have nerurological problems, and develop childhood illnesses. Reducing adolescent pregnancy – Sex education, family planning, access to contraceptive methods, positive life options, broad community involvement, and abstinence are prevention techniques. A comparison with the Swedish sex education program reveals the weakness of the American system.

  14. ADOLESCENT PROBLEMS AND HEALTHRisk Factors and Assets – Adolescent problems can be predicted through poverty, ineffective parenting, and mental disorders. Some internal risk factors are motivation, positive values, social competencies, and interpersonal competencies.

  15. Substance Use and Abuse – The use of illicit drugs is a serious problem for adolescents. Many studies reveal the excessive use of drugs by teenagers and the steady increase of their use by ever-younger adolescents. • Alcohol – Alcohol used by teenagers has actually declined since 1980 from 72 percent of high school seniors to 51 percent in 1999. College use, however, shows little change. The effects of alcohol use on teens is pervasive; it sometimes causes damage to the hippocampus and can affect memory retention. • Cigarette smoking – Peer influence is still attributed to the persistent use of tobacco by teenagers. It is, however, decreasing – a 5 percent decrease from 1997 to 2000. • The roles of development, parents, and peers – Heavy drug and alcohol use often lead to premature marriages and inadequate socioemotional growth.

  16. Eating Disorders – Research reveals that girls who felt negatively about their bodies in early adolescence were more likely to develop eating disorders; those who had positive relationships with their parents had healthier eating habits; girls who were sexually active were more likely to be dieting. • Obesity – In 33 years, obesity among 12 to 19 year-olds increased from 5 to 14percent. Having an overweight parent and eating habits established in childhood were predictors of obesity in adolescence. • Anorexia nervosa – Pursuit of thinness to the point of self-starvation and death. Anorexics are mostly white females, and 70 percent afflicted recover. • Bulimia nervosa – Binge-and-purge eating pattern characterized by self-induced vomiting. Also has a 70 percent recovery rate.

  17. Adolescent Health • Adolescence: A critical juncture in health – Many health habits formed in adolescence are carried forward to adulthood. • Sleep – Recent studies have catalogued the need for more sleep in adolescence and how the lack of it has negative impacts on student achievement. • Social contexts, relationships, and health • Poverty – There is a correlation between poor health and poverty for adolescents. • Family – Family has a direct effect on adolescent health as both models and support. • Peers – An equal if not greater effect on adolescent health is the behaviors of peers. Continued…

  18. Schools – Teachers serve as role models, especially for younger adolescents. • Community and youth programs – Community activities and programs that foster group and family-like activities and environment have positive effects on adolescent health. • Health services – Cost, poor organization, and availability of services are all factors in 19 percent of adolescents not seeking health services. Generally, teens who engage in risk behavior were in need of health care. • The leading causes of death in adolescence – Accidents, suicide, and homicide are the three leading causes of death for teenagers aged 10 to 19. (See Chapter 17 for more information concerning teenage suicide).

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