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Chapter 32

Chapter 32. The Building of Global Empires. 1899 advertisement from McClure’s Magazine. The Idea of Imperialism. What does the term mean? Term dates from nineteenth century In popular discourse by 1880s Military imperialism of late 19 th -century Later, economic and cultural varieties

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Chapter 32

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  1. Chapter 32 The Building of Global Empires 1899 advertisement from McClure’s Magazine

  2. The Idea of Imperialism • What does the term mean? • Term dates from nineteenth century • In popular discourse by 1880s • Military imperialism of late 19th-century • Later, economic and cultural varieties • U.S. imperialism

  3. Motivations for Imperialism • Military • Conquest to bolster national prestige • Domestic Politics • Overseas conquests take focus off domestic problems • Economic • European capitalism: hope that expansion would help to ease a nation’s economic health through global cycles of boom and bust • Religious • Demographic • Ease urban overcrowding • Shipping criminal populations and dissident populations overseas

  4. Economic Exploitation • Exploitation of natural resources: diamonds in gold in sub-Saharan Africa; rubber in sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia; bananas and coffee in Latin America • Exploitation of cheap labor: Contracted laborers known as “coolies” sent to colonies as cheap agricultural labor to replace slaves • Expansion of markets: Colonies supposedly new markets for mother country’s manufactured goods • The extent that this happened was limited; the colonized rarely had enough money to buy these goods.

  5. Geopolitical Considerations • Strategic footholds • Waterways: Panama and Suez Canals; city of Singapore founded to control key strait between Indian and Pacific Oceans • Supply Stations: Cape Town in South Africa used as a way station for ships on their way to India and the East Indies; Hawaiian Islands serve as base for U.S. naval presence in the Pacific. • Imperial Rivalries: territory seized to check the power of nearby areas controlled by imperial rivals across the globe: German Southwest Africa and East Africa were territories taken in the 1880s to counter British presence in South Africa

  6. The “White Man’s Burden” • Rudyard Kipling (1864-1936) • 1899 Poem excerpt: Take up the White Man's burden--Send forth the best ye breed--Go bind your sons to exileTo serve your captives' need;To wait in heavy harness,On fluttered folk and wild--Your new-caught, sullen peoples,Half-devil and half-child. • French: mission civilisatrice

  7. The “White Man’s Burden” French propaganda poster from the late 1800s

  8. Domestic Political Considerations • Crises of industrialism and growing class consciousess • Global capitalist crashes in the 1870s and 1890s • Pressure from nascent socialist movements, such as in Germany • Imperial policies distract proletariat from domestic politics • Cecil Rhodes: imperialism alternative to civil war

  9. Technology and Imperialism • Transportation • Steamships: Quick transport of personnel and goods • Railroads: Allow quick deployment of troops to quell uprisings • Infrastructure • Suez Canal (1859-1869) • Panama Canal (1904-1914) • Both waterways strategically important to respective empires (British & American)

  10. Weaponry • Old muzzle-loading muskets take a long time • to reload between each shot. Repeating breech-loading rifle; U.S., 1850s – 1860s Maxim Gun; England, 1884 • Mid-century: breech-loading rifles • Reduce reloading time • 1880s: Refinement of the machine gun • Maxim Gun: American-born Hiram Maxim invents a gun that can fire 11 rounds per second for the British

  11. The Military Advantage • Battle of Omdurman (near Khartoum on Nile), 1898 • Five hours of fighting • British: six gunboats, twenty machine guns • British force lost a few hundred men; thousands of Sudanese killed

  12. Communications • Correspondence • 1830 Britain-India: A letter could take two years • After Suez Canal: A letter would arrive in two weeks • Telegraph • Experiments with submarine cables begin in 1850s • Britain-to-India cables are connected in 1870; it then takes five hours for a message to make its way from London to Calcutta by relays

  13. British Empire in India East India Company founded in 1600 Obtains a monopoly on India trade Originally needed permission from the Mughal emperors to trade The Mughal empire begins to declines after death of Aurangzeb in 1707 The company begins to assert its own power with a private army and government

  14. British Conquest East India Company: Protects its economic interests through political and military conquest “Doctrine of lapse”: Between 1848 and 1856, any Indian princely state would be annexed by the company if its ruler died without a heir or was judged incompetent. British use Indian mercenaries who become known as sepoys; they are paid poorly and treated poorly

  15. Sepoy Revolt, 1857 • Newly issued rifles had cartridges in wax paper greased with animal fat • Problem for Hindus: beef • Problem for Muslims: pork • Small-scale rebellion ignites a general anti-British revolution • Company loses control of much of its holdings, but British troops at gain upper hand in late 1857

  16. British Imperial Rule • In response to the rebellion, Britain: • Abolishes Mughal empire • Exiles emperor to Burma • Abolishes the East India Company • Establishes direct rule of India by British government • Queen Victoria adds “Empress of India” to her many titles

  17. British Imperial Rule Queen Victoria, Empress of India, in 1887

  18. British Rule in India Indian cricket team that toured England in 1886 • Organization of agriculture • Cash Crops: Tea, coffee, opium replace sustenance crops, leading to horrific famines • Stamp of British culture on Indian environment • Common language of English imposed on a land of over 400 different languages • British education system helps to create a class of lower-level Indian civil servants; top tiers of government still occupied by British • British game of cricket becomes a huge Indian pastime

  19. Imperialism in Central Asia • British, French, Russians compete for influence in central Asia • France drops out after Napoleon falls from power • Russia active after 1860s in Tashkent, Bokhara, Samarkand; and approached India through its machinations in independent Afghanistan • The “Great Game”: Russian vs. British intrigue inside Afghanistan • British feared Russians using Afghanistan to stage an invasion of India, the “Crown Jewel” of the empire. • Britain fought two costly wars to bring the nominally independent Afghans in line and check Russian influence: First Anglo-Afghan War (1838-1842) and Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878-1880). • Rudyard Kipling’s vivid novel Kim (1901), about an poor orphan son of an Irish soldier in India, uses the “Great Game” as its backdrop.

  20. Imperialism in Southeast Asia Sir Thomas Raffles (1781-1826) • Spanish: The Philippines • Spanish colonization of these islands began with the Legzapi expedition in 1565; founded Manila in 1571. Ruled from Mexico City until 1821, and then directly from Madrid after that. • Dutch: Indonesia (Dutch East Indies) • British establish presence from 1820s • Had conflict with kings of Burma (Myanmar) in the 1820s; established colonial authority by 1880s • Thomas Stamford Raffles founds Singapore for trade in Strait of Melaka • Base of British colonization in Malaysia, 1870s-1880s • French: Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, 1859-1893 • Encouraged conversion to Christianity

  21. Imperialism in Asia, ca. 1914

  22. The Scramble for Africa (1875-1900) • French, Portuguese, Belgians, and English competing for “the dark continent” • Conrad’s Heart of Darkness (1899): promulgates negative stereotypes of the Congo but also a savage critique of imperialism • Britain establishes strong presence in Egypt, South Africa, and Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe and Zambia) • Suez Canal accounts for strategic interest in Egypt • Rhodesia: Cecil Rhodes consolidates diamond mines in 1870s and 1880s

  23. Rewriting African History • Ancient African history is purposefully erased to portray sub-Saharan Africans as “uncivilized”/“savage” • Justification of imperialist rule: bringing “civilization” • European “discovery” of great river sources (Nile, Niger, Congo, Zambesi) becomes a near mania • Information on interior of Africa comes from explorers like David Livingstone, who sought the source of the Nile • King Leopold II of Belgium creates his personal fiefdom, the “Congo Free State” in 1885, along the Congo River, opening up the area to commercial ventures, like rubber cultivation. Slave-like labor conditions and abuses lead Belgian government to take control of colony in 1908, and renamed it Belgian Congo

  24. Rewriting African History “Dr. Livingstone, I presume?” Welsh journalist and explorer Henry Morton Stanley (1841-1904) was paid by the New York Herald to find the Scottish explorer and missionary, David Livingstone (1813-1873), who had been in the African interior for years without being heard from. Stanley found him near near Lake Tanganyika in present-day Tanzania in November 1871. Newspaper accounts of the meeting in 1872 disseminated the famous question, which was likely journalistic fabrication.

  25. Colonizing South Africa • Farmers (Boers) follow • to settle territory fertile • farmlands, later call themselves Afrikaners • Competition and conflict with indigenous Khoikhoi and Xhosa peoples as Boers push eastward (Nelson Mandela is an ethnic Xhosa) Dutch East India Company establishes the colony of Cape Town in 1652

  26. South African (Boer) War 1899-1902 • British take over the Cape Colony in 1806 • British ban slavery in 1833; this causes a conflict with Afrikaners who rely heavily on slavery • Afrikaners migrate north-eastward in the Great Trek in the 1830s and 1840s, overpower Ndebele and Zulu resistance with superior firepower; known as “Voortrekkers” • Establish independent republics • British tolerate Boer republics until “mineral revolution” of 1870s: gold and diamonds discovered and mined • White-white conflict, black soldiers and laborers • Afrikaners concede in 1902; 1910, their republics are integrated into Union of South Africa

  27. South African (Boer) War 1899-1902 South Africa in the late 1800s, before the outbreak of the Boer War

  28. The Berlin West Africa Conference (1884-1885) • Fourteen European states and the United States • No African states present • Rules of colonization: any European state can take “unoccupied” territory after informing other European powers • European firepower dominates Africa • Exceptions: Ethiopia fights off Italy (1896); Liberia protected by the U.S.

  29. Imperialism in Africa, ca. 1914

  30. Systems of Colonial Rule • Concessionary companies • Private companies get large tracts of land to exploit natural resources • Companies get freedom to tax, recruit labor: horrible abuses • Profit margin minimal • Direct rule: France • “Civilizing mission” • Chronic shortage of European personnel; language and cultural barriers • French West Africa: 3,600 Europeans rule 9 million

  31. Indirect Rule • Frederick D. Lugard (Britain, 1858-1945) • The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa (1922) • Argues for the use of existing indigenous institutions to consolidate and maintain power: co-opt local leaders into colonial rule. • Legacy of Colonizers: Europeans had difficulty in establishing tribal categories, they imposed arbitrary boundaries, and exaggerated or inflamed ethnic tensions to their advantage. • Rwandan Genocide of the 1990s: Belgian colonizers in what is now Rwanda favored the Tutsi ethnic group over the Hutus, creating animosity that fed the Rwandan genocide: the government-sponsored massacre of Tutsis by the Hutu groups.

  32. European Imperialism in Australia and New Zealand English use Australia as a penal colony from 1788 Voluntary migrants follow; gold discovered 1851 Smallpox, measles devastate natives Territory called terra nullius: “land belonging to no one” New Zealand: natives forced to sign Treaty of Waitangi (1840), placing New Zealand under British “protection”

  33. European and Native Population in Australia and New Zealand

  34. European Imperialism in the Pacific Islands • Commercial outposts • Whalers seeking port • Merchants seeking sandalwood and sea slugs for sale in China • Missionaries seeking souls • British, French, German, American powers carve up Pacific islands • Tonga remains independent, but relies on Britain

  35. Imperialism in Oceania, ca. 1914

  36. U.S. Imperialism • President James Monroe warns Europeans not to engage in imperialism in western hemisphere (1823) • The Monroe Doctrine: All Americas a U.S. protectorate • 1867 purchased Alaska from Russia (“Seward’s Folly”) • 1875 established protectorate over Hawai`i • Locals overthrow queen in 1893, persuade U.S. to acquire islands in 1898

  37. Spanish-Cuban-American War (1898-1899) • U.S. declares war in Spain after battleship Maine sunk in Havana harbor, 1898 • U.S. takes possession of Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, Philippines • U.S. intervenes in other Caribbean, Central American lands; occupies Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, Honduras, Haiti • Filipinos revolt against Spanish rule, later against U.S. rule, under leader Emiliano Aguinaldo

  38. Spanish-Cuban-American War (1898-1899) Lithograph of the U.S.S. Maine explosion in Havana harbor, 1898 Filipino leader Emiliano Aguinaldo around 1900

  39. The Panama Canal Panama Canal under construction in 1907 • President Theodore Roosevelt (in office 1901-1909) supports insurrection against Colombia (1903); Roosevelt thinks the Colombian price is to high for the land • Rebels establish state of Panama • U.S. gains territory to build canal, Panama Canal Zone • Roosevelt Corollary of Monroe Doctrine • U.S. right to intervene in domestic affairs of other nations if U.S. investments threatened

  40. The Panama Canal 1909 cartoon from Puck Magazine making fun of Teddy Roosevelt’s imperialist tendencies

  41. Early Japanese Expansion Resentment over unequal treaties of 1860s In the 1870s, Japan colonizes northern regions in Hokkaido and Kurile Islands; also southern Okinawa, and Ryukyu Islands as well 1876, Japanese purchase warships from Britain, dominate Korea Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) over Korea results in Japanese victory Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) also ends in Japanese victory

  42. Early Japanese Expansion Japanese woodblock illustration of Russo-Japanese War naval battle

  43. Economic Legacies of Imperialism • Colonized states encouraged to exploit natural resources rather than build manufacturing centers • Encouraged dependency on imperial power for manufactured goods made from native raw product • Indian and Egyptian cotton • Iron ore and tin in Southeast Asia • Introduction of new crops • Tea in Ceylon • Coffee in South America • Rubber in Malaysia, French Indochina, and the Congo • Cocoa in Sub-Saharan Africa: Gold Coast (now Ghana), Nigeria and the Ivory Coast

  44. Labor Migrations • Europeans move to temperate lands • Work as free cultivators, industrial laborers • 32 million to the U.S., 1800-1914 • Africans, Asians, and Pacific islanders move to tropical/subtropical lands • Indentured laborers and manual laborers • 2.5 million between 1820 and 1914 • Chinese laborers in the Caribbean

  45. Imperialism and Migration during the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Century

  46. Colonial Conflict • Many insurrections against colonial rule • Example: Tanganyika Maji Maji rebellion against German colonial forces(1905-1906)—Rebels sprinkle selves with magic water (maji-maji) as protection against modern weapons; 75,000 killed. • “Scientific” racism developed • Count Joseph Arthur de Gobineau (1816-1882): French diplomat (who was not really a noble) published An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races in 1850s, which argued for the superiority of northern Europeans. Actually against imperialism since he thought it would lead to race-mixing • Herbert Spencer (1820-1902) combines classical liberalism with theories of Charles Darwin (1809-1882) to form pernicious doctrine of “Social Darwinism”: “survival of fittest.” Darwin was too careful of a scientist to apply his theories of evolution to human society.

  47. Nationalism and Anticolonial Movements • Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1883) • Bengali often called “father of modern India” • Sought to eliminate Hindi practices of sati, caste rigidity, polygamy, and child marriages, which the British used as evidence of European moral superiority • Reformers call for self-government and adoption of selected British practices; looks to Enlightenment thought/Deism • Indian National Congress formed 1885 • Founded to discuss ways for educated Indians to obtain a greater share in government; not initially opposed to British rule and even contained British members • Congress joins with All-India Muslim League in 1916

  48. Nationalism and Anticolonial Movements Indian National Congress in 1885

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