The Bracero Program 1941-1945

2. The Bracero Program1941-1945

4. What is a bracero? • Bracero is a Spanish word derived from the word brazo (arms or shoulders); some have translated the term to mean “helping hands” • Braceros were Mexican farm workers invited to work in the United States during World War II • Some braceros worked on railroads or canning food • The bracero program (the Mexican Farm Labor Program) lasted from 1942 to 1964 • Today we’ll focus on the bracero experience during World War II

5. Key questions about the braceros Why was the bracero program created? Who were the braceros? What was the bracero experience like for the workers? What were the effects of the bracero experience? How do we know about braceros?

6. Why braceros? From 1940 onward, major increase in demand for US agricultural products Chronic labor shortage in agriculture, especially for backbreaking “stoop work” US entry into war led to “crisis” shortage of agricultural workers Mexican and Mexican-American workers were already known to crop growers

7. Source: Kansas newspaper, circa October 4, 1941, available online from The Great Plains During World War II, http://plainshumanities.unl.edu/homefront/homefront.news.sj.19411004.

8. The Bracero Program is created • 1942 agreement between the United States and Mexico (Public Law 45) • Mexican laborers shall not be subject to the military draft • Discrimination against braceros is forbidden • Braceros shall be guaranteed transportation, food, hospitalization, and repatriation • Braceros shall not be used to displace other workers nor to lower wages • Contracts made by employee and employer will be made under the supervision of the Mexican government and shall be written in Spanish.

9. The Bracero Program is created (continued) Expenses incurred for transportation and lodgings from point of origins to destination shall be paid by the employer who will be reimbursed by sub-employer Salaries shall be the same as those made to citizens of the USA and shall not be lower than 30 cents an hour Exceptions as to wages can be made under extenuating circumstances provided authorization by the Mexican government is given

10. The Bracero Program is created (continued) No minors under 14 will be allowed to work Braceros will be allowed to form associations and elect a leader to represent them They shall be guaranteed work for 75 percent of the working days Savings shall be deducted from braceros’ pay and the Banco National Agricola shall take charge of the money until the braceros return

11. Mexican American Workers in the War Years

12. Source: “Bracero queue,” US Department of Labor, available on http://www.opb.org/programs/oregonexperiencearchive/braceros/about.php

13. Source: “Handing out papers,” National Archives, available on http://www.opb.org/programs/oregonexperiencearchive/braceros/about.php

14. Source: “March,” National Archives, available on http://www.opb.org/programs/oregonexperiencearchive/braceros/about.php

16. Source: “Cigarette,” National Archives, available on http://www.opb.org/programs/oregonexperiencearchive/braceros/about.php

17. Source: Unnamed photograph, circa 1942-1964, Oregon State University Archives, accessed from The Braceros: The Emergency Farm Labor Supply Program, http://www.opb.org/programs/oregonexperiencearchive/braceros/life.php, 21 January 2010.

18. Source: “Harvesting potatoes,” Oregon State University archives, available on http://www.opb.org/programs/oregonexperiencearchive/braceros/about.php

19. Source: “Picking up prunes,” Oregon State University archives, available on http://www.opb.org/programs/oregonexperiencearchive/braceros/about.php

20. Source: “Stoop and pick,” Oregon State University archives, available on http://www.opb.org/programs/oregonexperiencearchive/braceros/about.php

21. Source: Agustin Bautista, "Photo of braceros on railroad," in Bracero History Archive, Item #1032, http://braceroarchive.org/items/show/1032 (accessed January 25, 2010)

22. Source: Vachon, John, “Corpus Christi, Texas. Mexican and Negro farm labor,” Farm Security Administration-Office of War Information (Library of Congress), May 1943.

23. Source: “Tent camp,” Oregon State University archives, available on http://www.opb.org/programs/oregonexperiencearchive/braceros/about.php

24. Source: “Sleeping quarters,” Oregon State University archives, available on http://www.opb.org/programs/oregonexperiencearchive/braceros/about.php

25. Source: “Washing Up,” Oregon State University archives, available on http://www.opb.org/programs/oregonexperiencearchive/braceros/about.php

26. Source: “Cafeteria Service,” Oregon State University archives, available on http://www.opb.org/programs/oregonexperiencearchive/braceros/about.php

27. Source: “Poker after work,” Oregon State University archives, available on http://www.opb.org/programs/oregonexperiencearchive/braceros/about.php

28. Source: “Music,” Oregon State University archives, available on http://www.opb.org/programs/oregonexperiencearchive/braceros/about.php

29. Challenges Though the federal government set the broad parameters of the bracero program, implementation was left up to the local states and communities Long distances from loved ones, familiar culture Limited ability to organize for higher wages or better working conditions

30. Bracero attitudes changed with experience, as one camp boss complained: The first year – Very cooperative The second year – Too smart for their own good The third year – They begin to think they are running things The fourth year – They expect to take over

31. Opportunities Limitations Very low pay Incredibly difficult work No control over where or what kind of work Little guarantee that bosses will hold up their obligations Discrimination Far from home, family, culture • To earn more money than in Mexico • To move to the US (permanently or temporarily) • Adventure • To represent Mexico positively to Americans

32. Effects of the Bracero Program The bracero program continued until 1964 The bracero program ensured that during WWII, the US met and exceeded its agricultural production goals Thousands of Mexicans moved to the United States—many eventually settled permanently and raised families Participation of braceros and their children in the drive to organize farmworkers during the 1960s

33. How do we know about braceros? Government reports Scholars’ books Braceros’ oral histories (www.braceroarchive.org) Corridos

34. What is a corrido? Corridos are a type of traditional Mexican and Mexican-American folk song Usually describe great heroes, great tragedies, border crossings, protests, pride in culture Braceros wrote and performed corridos about their experience

35. Corrido analysis

36. Your task • Each group will receive a different oral history from braceros who worked in the US during World War II • Using the “Themes and Formulas of Corridos” sheet, work with your group to write an original corrido about the events described in the oral history • Use at least 4 of the 7 corrido formulas • Extra credit for writing your corrido in two languages! • Use the document packet to get inspiration for your corridos; you can also use information from the presentation • Prepare to share your corrido with the whole group