Two Models of Discrete Trial Teaching Used with Children with Autism

2. Two Models of Discrete Trial Teaching Used with Children with Autism a. Lovaas Model (utilizing the UCLA curriculum) b. Errorless Teaching (utilizing the ABLLS as curriculum)

3. The Discrete Trial(a three-term contingency) SD R SR (Discriminative Stimulus) (Response) (Reinforcing Stimulus) (a four-term contingency) EO/SD R SR (Establishing Operation/Discriminative Stimulus) (Response) (Reinforcing Stimulus)

4. Definitions 1.SD (Discriminative Stimulus):An environmental cue or instruction that signals that reinforcement is available for a target behavior. 2. R (Response) : The behavior the child exhibits immediately following the presentation of the SD. 3. SR (Reinforcing Stimulus) : The consequence following the child’s response that changes the likelihood with which the behavior will reoccur.

5. Consecutive Trials Using the Three-Term Contingency SD R SR ITI SD R SR ITI SD R SR - This sequence is adhered to most often at the early stages of teaching regardless of the model of treatment that is being utilized.

6. Definitions 4.ITI (Inter-trial Interval) • The time between the end of the consumption of the reinforcer or administration of the punisher (“NO”) and the presentation of the next SD. • When thinning the reinforcement schedule, the ITI is the time between the end of one response and the presentation of the next SD. • Depending on the model of treatment, the ITI will be from less than one second up to three seconds.

7. Consecutive Trials Using the Three-Term Contingency SD R ITI SD R ITI SD R ITI SD R ITI SD R ITI SD R ITI SD R ITI SR This sequence can be employed when thinning the reinforcement schedule or increasing the pace of instruction regardless of the model of treatment. This sequence is also employed when presenting SDs in a “mixed and varied format” or when stimuli are presented in “random rotation.”

8. Definitions 5. Mixing and Varying (errorless)/Random Rotation (Lovaas) : The random presentation of any mastered response from any program with any current target response from any program. 6. Program: A skill or concept that is being taught (e.g., Expressive Picture Labels or Pronouns or Prepositions are all programs). 7. Mastered Response : A response that was taught within a program. 8. Field: The top of the table where stimuli are placed.

9. Definitions 9. Current Target: A response that is currently being taught within a program (e.g., “cup”, “my shirt”, “on top”) 10. Prompt: Assistance provided by the adult in order to increase the likelihood that the child will be successful at completing the response. The prompt should be delivered immediately following the SD. (e.g., SD(prompt) R SR) 11. Stimulus : An item or event in the environment that can be detected by the senses (pl. stimuli).

10. Definitions 12. Discrimination Training: The procedure that teaches children to be able to distinguish one item (or other response) from another. 13. Extinction: The process in which behavior that has been previously reinforced is or longer reinforced, therefore the frequency of the behavior decreases.

11. When to use “No” 1. In the UCLA model it is recommended that an “informational No” or extinction is employed when a child responds incorrectly. 2. Using two consecutive “No”s prior to delivering a prompt should be primarily confined to points in the discrimination training procedure when the child will be offered opportunities to change and adapt his/her behavior in response to corrective feedback (i.e., the absence of reinforcement). In other words, we are saying to the child, “try again.”

12. When to use “No” 3. During the teaching of new responses, the correct procedure to employ following an incorrect response (according to the UCLA model) is to employ the least intrusive prompt that will facilitate the response. The goal at the early stages of discrimination training is to introduce the item and make the child successful not to teach them to adapt to corrective feedback. 4. There is not a procedure called the “no-no prompt” in the UCLA model this evolved due to a somewhat altered understanding of the correct manner in which this kind of feedback would be employed.

13. Advantages of Using “No” as Corrective Feedback 1. Teaches the child to adapt and change his or her behavior in response to the absence of reinforcement. In other words, it offers the child an opportunity to “try something different.” 2. The ability to adapt and change your behavior in response to the absence of reinforcement is a skill required in incidental learning situations (i.e., “real life”). 3. “No” is a naturally occurring consequence in every person’s life.

14. Using “No” Correctly Example of Using “No” with the Current Target in Random Rotation • SD1-------correct---------reinforce • SD2-------correct-------- reinforce • SD1-------correct----------reinforce (switch positions) • SD2--------correct----------reinforce (switch positions) • SD3--------correct----------reinforce (switch positions) • SD3--------correct----------reinforce • SD1--------correct-----------reinforce • SD2----incorrect------- “No” • SD2---------incorrect------------- “No” • SD2 (prompt)------correct------reinforce (switch position) • SD2---------correct-------------reinforce • SD3---------correct----------- reinforce • SD2---------correct-------------reinforce (switch position) • SD3---------correct-------------reinforce (switch position) • SD2---------correct-------------reinforce SD1: “Touch toothbrush” SD2: “Touch shoe” SD3: “Touch cup”

15. Advantages of Using “No” as Corrective Feedback 4. Teaches children to avoid negative consequences. 5. Strong contrast between when response is incorrect vs. correct may make social praise more reinforcing. 6. May reduce dependency on prompts.

16. Disadvantages of Using “No” as Corrective Feedback 1. Child may demonstrate problem behavior in response to its presentation. 2. Child may have a period of responding incorrectly “on purpose” in order to hear “No.” (NOTE: This same kind of behavior may be demonstrated by typically developing children when they do or say things incorrectly in order to get a “reaction” from their parent, teachers etc. so is it REALLY a disadvantage?) 3. Therapists may default to employing “No” too often which may result in problem behavior due to excessive failure.

17. Definitions 14. Stimulus Control: Some specific behavior is more likely to occur in the presence of some specific SD. For example: Tell a child to “touch the cup” and then prompt him by pointing to the cup. The child then touches the cup. The SD that is most likely controlling the child’s response is the instructor’s point and not the verbal instruction, “touch the cup.”

18. Definitions 15. Transfer Trial: The first trial is prompted followed by a second unprompted trial. For example, if the child is told to “touch the cup” and then the instructor points to the cup, the child’s response is under stimulus control of the instructor’s point. If immediately following the prompted trial the instructor tells the child to “touch the cup” and the child responds correctly the instructor has shifted stimulus control from the point to the verbal instruction.

19. Using “Near-errorless” Teaching Procedures INITIAL PRESENTATION OF STIMULUS Stimulus 1 (“0” sec DELAY PROMPT)----------Correct Response -------------SR TRANSFER TRIAL Stimulus 1 (“2” sec DELAY)---------------Correct Response---------SR (~1-3 interceding trials consisting of mastered responses) Stimulus 1 (“2” sec DELAY)---------------Correct Response-------------SR (Future Presentations of the stimulus will be presented with a “2” second delay) These teaching procedures have been taken from Dr. Vincent J. Carbone's Introduction to Verbal Behavior #1 workshop handout from March 2004.

20. Using “Near-errorless” Teaching Procedures Example: • Instructor says, “Touch the shoe” and then prompts the child to touch the shoe. • Instructor switches the position of the item in the field and repeats, “Touch the shoe” • The child touches the shoe without prompting from the instructor. • The instructor says, “Clap your hands” (mastered response). As the child responds, the instructor switches the position of the item in the field. • Child responds appropriately. • The instructor says, “What am I doing?” as she knocks on the table (mastered response) • The child responds, “knocking” • The instructor says, “Do this.” and touches her nose (mastered response) • The child imitates the instructor’s action. • The instructor says, “Touch the shoe.” • The child touches the shoe without prompting from the instructor.

21. Using “Near-errorless” Teaching Procedures: Correction Procedure Stimulus 1 (“0” sec DELAY – PROMPT)------------------Correct Response --------------- SR TRANSFER TRIAL Stimulus 1 (“2” sec DELAY)------------Incorrect or NO Response CORRECTION TRIAL Re-Present Stimulus 1 (“0” sec DELAY)------------------Correct Response------------------SR TRANSFER TRIAL Stimulus 1 (“2” sec DELAY) ---------------------Correct Response---------------------------SR (If learner is incorrect again on the transfer trial, return to “0” second delay to achieve correct response and move on, BUT ASK YOURSELF, Why is the transfer not occurring?) SEVERAL RESPONSES LATER Stimulus 1 (“0” sec DELAY – [Phoneme/Mimetic Prompt])-----Correct Response---------------SR TRANSFER TRIAL Stimulus 1 (“2” sec DELAY) -----------------Correct Response----------------------------SR These teaching procedures have been taken from Dr. Vincent J. Carbone's Introduction to Verbal Behavior #1 workshop handout from March 2004.

22. Advantages of Errorless Teaching 1. Reduces learner errors through teaching methods that insure high levels of correct responding. 2. Using of transfer trials and intermixing of easy and difficult demands may have a positive effect on the child’s motivation to continue responding and reduce the motivation to escape. 3. Fast paced instruction may have a positive effect on the child’s motivation to continue responding and reduce the motivation to escape.

23. Disadvantages of Errorless Teaching 1. If not employed correctly, child may become prompt dependent. 2. Does not offer the child an opportunity to respond to corrective feedback. 3. Typical learning environments do not offer fast paced instruction therefore programming for more natural learning contingencies is a necessity that may easily be overlooked.

24. Definitions 16. Mastery Criteria: Criteria that is established to determine if a specific response or set of responses has been learned. Typically with Trial-by-Trial data mastery criteria may be set at 90-100% independent/correct responding across three consecutive sessions or teachers or days. When using Probe Data, a response or set of responses may have been learned by the child once he/she has scored three consecutive “Y”s. 17. Percent Correct Graph: This graph should be completed at the end of each session. Each instructor should calculate the percent of correct responding in each program and plot a point on the graph. 18. Cumulative Graph: The total number of responses mastered each week will be graphed at the end of each week. Each consecutive week the total acquired for the week is added to the previous weeks number. This kind of graph can be used if you are colleting probe data or trial by trial data. (For example, is week one a child may master 3 responses, therefore a point would be plotted on the graph at 3. During week two the child masters 5 more responses, the next point on the graph would therefore be 8.)

25. Discrimination Learning This procedure is used to teach the child to discriminate between the first two items within a program. The procedure outlined is for programs involving the use of stimuli. Slight modifications will need to be made for those programs not involving stimuli.

26. Discrimination Learning Step A: Choose Targets which are maximally discriminable in: • Physical appearance(e.g., a block and car). • Sound (e.g., “cup” vs. “dinosaur”). • Function(e.g., a ball and truck vs. a shoe and sock). • For targets that do not involve the use of stimuli – different response topography (e.g., hands vs. feet).

27. Discrimination Learning Step B: Mass Trial Target Item #1 • Repeatedly present target item #1 with prompts. • Gradually and systematically fade the prompts. • Place the item in different locations around the table between trials. • For programs involving the use of stimuli: Once the child is responding to target item #1 at 80% or greater accuracy, introduce a distracter object. The object should be neutral (i.e., holds little to no value to the child). For example, a block or napkin could be used; the label should be unknown to the child. Rotate the position of the objects on the table between trials. Introduce between 1-3 distracters. • Once the child is correctly responding to target item #1 at 80% or greater accuracy (with distracters), introduce target item #2.

28. Discrimination Learning Step C: Mass Trial Target Item #2 • Repeatedly present target item #2 with prompts. • Gradually and systematically fade prompts. • Place the item in different locations around the table between trials. • For programs involving the use of stimuli: Once the child is responding to target item #2 at 80% or greater accuracy, introduce a distracter object. The object should be neutral (i.e., holds little to no value to the child). For example, a block or napkin could be used; the label should be unknown to the child. Rotate the position of the objects on the table between trials. Introduce between 1-3 distracters. • Once the child is correctly responding to target item #1 at 80% or greater accuracy (with distracters), move to Step D.

29. Discrimination Learning Step D: Mass Trial item #2 in the presence of #1 • Repeatedly present item #2 with item #1 also on the table. • Rotate the position of the objects on the table between trials. • Continue to ask only for target item # 2. Once 80% or greater accuracy is achieved move to Step E.

30. Discrimination Learning Step E: Mass Trial item #1 in the presence of #2 • Repeatedly present item #1 with item #2 also on the table. • Rotate the position of the objects on the table between trials. • Continue to ask only for target item #1. Once 80% or greater accuracy is achieved move to Step F.

31. Discrimination Learning Step F: Block Trials (moving toward random rotation) • Begin with either target item #1 or target item #2 and present each in blocks of trials as outlined below. • Present a block of trials of target item #1 in the presence of target item #2 for approximately 6 trials (make sure at least the last 2 trials are independent correct responses before going to the next step). • Give the child a break (i.e., a short play break). • Present a block of trials of target item #2 in the presence of target item #1 for approximately 6 trials. Prompt the correct response on the “switch trial” (i.e., when switching from one target to the other).

32. Discrimination Learning Over time, as the child demonstrates consistency: • Decrease the number of trials per block. • Decrease the length of the break until you are conducting both blocks within the same sitting. • Fade the level of prompting on the switch trial.

33. Discrimination Learning Step G: Random Rotation • Randomly present the SD for target item #1 and target item #2 (i.e., free from pattern as if flipping a coin repeatedly). • Rotate the position of the items on the table between trials. • Both items are considered mastered once the child responds correctly to at least 80% of the trials in random rotation.

34. Expanded Trials What is that?

35. Expanded Trials Why, it’s the systematic increasing of the number of distracters between the presentations of the target response in order to increase the child’s memory for the target response…silly!

36. Expanded Trials · This procedure is used to promote retention of information across time by systematically increasing the length of time across which the child must retain the information. · It is particularly helpful if a child is not able to move past block trials or has difficulty learning to discriminate between items. · This procedure may also be used if the child has difficulty retaining newly acquired items across sessions or days when placed in random rotation.

37. Expanded Trials Program: Receptive Instructions New Target: “clap” Step 1: Present the target response. Prompt as needed so the child experiences immediate success. Step 2: Fade prompts until the child is responding independently. Step 3: Begin Expanded Trials.

38. Expanded Trials Here is an abbreviated example of how expanded trials may look over several sittings: Target item: “Clap” Sitting 1Sitting 2Sitting 3 “Clap”“Clap”“Clap” “Wave” “Stomp” “Stand-up” “Clap”“Knock” “Kick” “Jump” “Clap”“Wave” “Clap”“Kick” “Clap” “Kick” “Stand-up” “Knock” “Clap”“Point” “Point” “Jump” “Clap”“kick” “Point” “wave” “Clap”“Clap”

39. Expanded Trials Guidelines 1. If the child responds incorrectly to one of the distracter responses, do not begin prompting this response. Instead, continue with the expansion of the target response. Review the incorrect response later during the session. 2. If the target response is incorrect at any point during expansion, return to the previous level of success (i.e., number of distracters where the child experienced success). 3. Work to extend the procedure across the day, working with time intervals rather than the number of interceding trials.

40. Collapsing Trials Q: What is that? A: A procedure that can be employed when a child is demonstrating consistent discrimination errors between two or more target responses.

41. Collapsing Trials 1. Follows same rules as Expanded Trials regarding distracter trials. 2. Here is an abbreviated example of how Collapsing Trials may look over several sittings: Discrimination Error in Receptive Object Labeling: “fork” vs. “spoon” Sitting 1Sitting 2Sitting 3Sitting 4 “touch Fork” “touch spoon” “give me the spoon” “find the fork” “touch car” “Stomp feet” “Stand-up” “do this…” “what’s your name?” “a dog is an ....” “touch head” “touch airplane” “Jump” “Clap” “a cup is for…” “find the spoon” “Clap” “Do this…” “touch the fork.” “This is ….” “give me the fork” etc. “Spoon” 3. Continue reducing the number of distracter trials until the two targets are back to back. 4. When there are discrimination errors, it is highly recommended that you collect trial by trial data. 5. Have a separate section in the logbook for discrimination errors. Do not let discrimination errors hold up the rest of the program.

42. Generalization Stimulus Generalization Definition: The extent to which a behavior taught in one situation is subsequently performed in another situation. a. Across People - the child’s ability to respond to people other than those involved in original teaching. b. Across Environments - the child’s ability to respond in different locations other than the “table and chair” (e.g., sitting on the couch, on the floor, at school etc). c. Across SDs - the child’s ability to respond to different SDs (e.g., “sit here,” “sit down,” “have a seat”). d. Across Stimuli - the child’s ability to respond to different examples of the stimulus used in teaching.

43. Generalization Response Generalization Definition: The extent to which, by teaching one behavior, you see changes in other behaviors although these other behaviors were not explicitly taught (e.g., you teach a child to put away toys to the SD “clean up” and the child also begins to throw away garbage and put books away on the shelf).

44. Generalization Maintenance Definition: The extent to which behaviors are maintained across time (e.g., a behavior is taught at time 1, and the child maintains the behavior at times 2, 3, and 4). R R R R I-----------------I--------I--------------------I T1 T2 T3 T4

45. Generalization General Techniques for Promoting Generalization Vary stimulus conditions over time. a. Have multiple teachers and styles. b. Vary the stimuli. c. Vary the wording of instructions and questions. d. Vary the teaching environment.

46. Generalization General Techniques for Promoting Generalization e. Make antecedents (SDs) natural. f. Making reinforcers natural. g. Make trials less discrete and more similar to typical interactions. • Do "incidental" teaching. • Build retention of information into your teaching procedures.

47. Data Collection Trial-by-Trial 1. This form of data collection requires every single response to be scored while the child and instructor are working. Data collection would occur during the inter-trial interval. 2. May provide the information needed to determine if a child is demonstrating consistent discrimination errors between two or more items. Most efficient way to determine if discrimination errors are being remediated. 3. Data calculated as a percent correct at the end of every session and then graphed. 4. May be more sensitive to more subtle increases or decreases in correct responding, incorrect responding and non-responding.

48. Data Collection Trial-by-Trial 5. Trial-by-trial data can be employed as an excellent training tool for new instructors; these data would allow the new instructor as well as their supervisor to review the instructor’s teaching procedures. 6. Can be compared to video tapes of a child’s therapy session for measure of reliability. 7. Can accurately track the rate of acquisition from day to day.

49. Data Collection Trial-by-Trial 8. Supervisor’s know exactly how many trials per response or program are practiced over time. 9. May be time consuming if instructor is not fluent at collecting these data and therefore may interfere with the pace of instruction.