Human Learning & Memory

1. Human Learning & Memory Siena Heights University Chapters 3, 4 & 5 Dr. S.Talbot

2. Basic Asssumptions • Equipotentiality. • Learning should be studied objectively (S-R). • Internal processes are excluded from study (SOR). • Learning involves a ________ change. • Organisms are ______ slates (tabula rasa). • Learning/ conditioning is the result of _____________ events. • The most useful theories are _______. Chapter 3 – Behaviorism and Classical Conditioning

3. Classical Conditioning (a.k.a. signal learning) & Pavlov • Russian physiologist who initially was studying digestion • Used dogs to study salivation when dogs were presented with meat powder • Also known as Pavlovian or Respondent Conditioning • Reflex: Automatic, nonlearned innate response e.g., an eyeblink Chapter 3 – Behaviorism and Classical Conditioning

4. The classical conditioning procedure.

5. Expectancy: Expectation about how events are interconnected • Acquisition: Training period when a response is reinforced • Extinction: ________ of a conditioned response through removal of _____________ • Spontaneous Recovery: ____________ of a learned response following apparent extinction Principles of Classical Conditioning

6. Principles of Classical Conditioning • Expectancy: Expectation about how events are interconnected • Acquisition: Training period when a response is reinforced • Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of a learned response following apparent extinction • Stimulus Generalization: A tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar, but not identical, to a conditioned stimulus (e.g., responding to a buzzer or a hammer banging when the conditioning stimulus was a bell) • Stimulus Discrimination: The learned ability to respond differently to various stimuli (e.g., Paula will respond differently to various bells (alarms, school, timer)) • Chapter 3 – Behaviorism and Classical Conditioning of

7. Higher – order conditioning • Includes combining an NS to an already established CS. • Sensory Preconditioning & test anxiety Chapter 3 – Behaviorism and Classical Conditioning

8. Extinction: Weakening of a conditioned response through removal of reinforcement • Problems with the use of extinction. • The speed of extinction is ___________. • Due to second – order conditioning, there may be many associated variables. • Difficult to extinguish all of the tem. • Spontaneous recovery. • Due to avoidance of feared stimuli, people may not get a chance to unlearn the conditioned response. • Alternatives • Counterconditioning of more _________ responses. Chapter 3 – Behaviorism and Classical Conditioning

9. Educational Assumptions • How do you get to Carnegie Hall? Practice, practice, practice or exposure, exposure, exposure. • The academic setting should be a positive and pleasant environment. • To break a bad habit, replace one S - R with an more desirable S – R. • Exhaustion method. • Threshold method. • Incompatibility method. • Assessment of learning involves the observation of behaviors. Chapter 3 – Behaviorism and Classical Conditioning

10. Chapter 4 Chapter 4 –Operant Conditioning

11. B.F. Skinner (1938) • A response that is followed by a reinforcer is strengthened and therefore more likely to occur again. • Reinforcer – a stimulus or event that increases the frequency or likelihood of a response it follows. • Instrumental/ Operant Conditioning • Reinforcer follows the response (immediately). • Reinforcer is contingent on the response. • How is this different than Classical Conditioning? Chapter 4 –Operant Conditioning

12. Primary Reinforcer: Nonlearned and natural; satisfies biological needs (e.g., food, water, affection) • Secondary Reinforcer: Learned reinforcer (e.g., money, grades, approval) • Positive Reinforcement: When a response is followed by a reward or other positive event • Negative Reinforcement: When a response is followed by the _______ of an unpleasant event (e.g., the bells in Fannie’s car stop when she puts the seatbelt on) or by an ____ to discomfort (escape behaviors). Chapter 4 –Operant Conditioning

13. Intrinsic Reinforcer • Extrinsic Reinforcer • Positive Feedback • Social Reinforcer? • Problems with each? Chapter 4 –Operant Conditioning

14. Punishments: Any consequence that reduces the frequency of a target behavior • Positive Punishment/ Punishment I • Negative Punishment/ Punishment II • Restitution • Restitution Overcorrection • Positive – practice overcorrection • Time – out • In-house suspension Chapter 4 –Operant Conditioning

15. Punishments/ Discipline: • Any punishment should • Be _______ to the behavior • Be ________ in strength to modify behavior • Indicate the desired behavior • Be immediate & consistent • Convey ______ Chapter 4 –Operant Conditioning

16. Punishments which may be innappropriate. • Physical and psychological punishment • Social isolation (i.e. missing recess, going to the corner of the room, suspensions etc…) • Extra coursework Chapter 4 –Operant Conditioning

17. Other Instrumental Conditioning Issues • Shaping - Molding responses gradually to a desired pattern • Successive Approximations: Ever-closer matches • Extinction • Antecedents • Operant Stimulus Generalization: Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to those that preceded operant reinforcement. How can this lead to superstitions? • Operant Stimulus Discrimination: Occurs when one learns to differentiate between the stimuli that signal either an upcoming reward or a nonreward condition. • Cueing • Setting Events Chapter 4 –Operant Conditioning

18. Instrumental Conditioning Schedules • Definition: Reinforcers do NOT follow every response • Schedules of Reinforcement: Plans for determining which responses will be reinforced • Continuous Reinforcement: A reinforcer follows every correct response • PartialReinforcement Effect: Responses acquired with partial reinforcement are very resistant to extinction Chapter 4 –Operant Conditioning

19. Instrumental Conditioning Schedules • Fixed Ratio Schedule (FR): A set number of correct responses must be made to obtain a reinforcer. • Variable Ratio Schedule (VR): Varied number of correct responses must be made to get a reinforcer. • Fixed Interval Schedule (FI): The first correct response made after a certain amount of time has elapsed is reinforced; produces moderate response rates. • Variable Interval Schedule (VI): Reinforcement is given for the first correct response made after a varied amount of time Chapter 4 –Operant Conditioning

20. Chapter 5 Chapter 5 –Applications of Conditioning

21. Using Reinforcement • Specify the desired or terminal behavior. • Use extrinsic reinforcement only when the desired behavior is not already present. • Identify truly reinforcing consequences. • How do you know? • The gain has to be greater than the loss (sufficient strength). • Clearly describe the relationship between behavior and consequence. • Be consistent. • Gradually shape the more complex behaviors. • When publicly awarded, make sure all individuals have the potential to earn the reinforcement. • Use objective criteria to measure performance (Merit Club). • Foster the ability to delay gratification. • Gradually wean learners off the reinforcement when the terminal behavior occurs regularly. Chapter 5 –Application

22. Decreasing undesirable behaviors • Extinguish the response. • Present noncontingent reinforcement. • Reinforce other/opposite behaviors. • Using punishment/ discipline. Chapter 5 –Application

23. Using Punishment • Choose a punishment with sufficient strength without being overly severe. • How do you know? • The loss has to be greater than the gain (sufficient strength). • Clearly describe the behavior to be punished and the relationship between behavior and consequence. • Be consistent. • Be immediate whenever possible. • Apply with an attitude of caring (unconditional regard). • Explain or reassert why the behavior is inappropriate. • Modify the environment when possible to reduce tempting behavior. • Teach more appropriate responses (skill streaming). Chapter 5 –Application

24. Applied Behavior Analysis • Instructional Objectives • Computer Assisted – Instruction • Mastery Learning & PSI Chapter 5 –Application

25. When are the Behavioral approaches best? • Students with • Limited motivation • Elevated levels of anxiety • Behavioral issues • A developmental disability or learning delay • Males? Chapter 5 –Application

26. Questions & Discussion Chapter 2 –Learning& the brain