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Unit 2 – Memory

Unit 2 – Memory. Section 1: Memory Processing. What is Memory?. The ability to remember things we have experienced, imagined, or learned Memory is often seen as steps in an information-processing system (FACTORY) Encoding – (The process of putting information into digital format.)

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Unit 2 – Memory

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  1. Unit 2 – Memory Section 1: Memory Processing

  2. What is Memory? • The ability to remember things we have experienced, imagined, or learned • Memory is often seen as steps in an information-processingsystem (FACTORY) • Encoding – (The process of putting information into digital format.) • Storage – Hard Drive • Retrieval – Accessing the Hard Drive

  3. Three Processes of Memory • These are different than types of memory (sensory, short-term, and long-term)

  4. Sequence of Information Processing

  5. Information Processing Model 1. Encoding gone 2. Storage Long Term Memory 3. Retrieval All the rest Retrieval Sensory Registers External Stimuli Attention Short Term Memory

  6. Encoding • Entering information in the memory bank • Example: Entering books into the library database • Without encoding, there can be no storage or retrieval!

  7. Attention • Selects certain information for further processing • We normally pay attention to only a small portion of incoming information • Divided (More than 1) • Sustained (Vigilant)

  8. Levels of Processing • Increasing “depth” of processing: depth of processing information enhances retention Forms: • Visual  how does it look ? (Detection) • Phonological  how does it sound ? (recognition) • Semantic  what does it mean ? (Associations) • (Shallowest  Deepest) • Criticized as not falsifiable

  9. Encoding in Short-Term Memory • Much information is stored in STM phonologically (according to how it sounds) • Some information is stored visually • Research has shown that memory for visually encoded information is better than phonologically encoded information

  10. Elaboration and Imagery • Elaboration – Forming connections around a stimulus • Occurs at every level • Spider Web of Information • Imagery – Useful to make distinctive memories • Case of S. • Most people can do 5 to 9 recall terms • S. could do over 70 (accurately in reverse, for 15 years after exposure) • Represented each word as a visual image

  11. Section 2 - Storage and Long Term Memory Unit 2 - Memory

  12. Information Processing Model 1. Encoding gone 2. Storage Long Term Memory 3. Retrieval All the rest Retrieval Sensory Registers External Stimuli Attention Short Term Memory

  13. Important Details about Storage • Span: how much info the system can hold • Duration: how long it holds it for

  14. Three Types of Memory Systems • Sensory – Fraction of a second to several seconds • Short Term – Up to 30 seconds • Long Term – Up to a lifetime • This is called the Atkinson-Shiffrin Theory

  15. Sensory Memory • 1st Stop brief storage of perceptual information before it is passed to short-term memory • The sensory registers are very large, but information stays for only a very short time Two types: • iconic (visual)  about 1 sec • implicated in photographic memory • echoic (auditory)  5 – 10 sec

  16. Visual and Auditory Registers • Visual register holds images, or icons, that represent all aspects of a visual image • Icons normally last about ¼ second in the visual register • Auditory register holds echoes of sound • Echoes can last up to several seconds in the auditory register • Current research has demonstrated that STM can hold whatever is rehearsed in 1.5 to 2 seconds • Larger amounts of information can be held by using the process of chunking

  17. Short Term Memory • Closely related to “Working Memory” • Processes conscious information for long term storage • Duration: no longer than 30 seconds • Limited capacity: Magic Number = 7 ± 2 bits of information (Memory Span)

  18. Baddeley’s Working Memory • Explains what Atkinson-Shiffrin cannot. • Working Memory • Problem solving, where do things go • Performing Tasks while holding information • 3 Parts • Phonological Loop – Speech based info • Visuospatial Working Memory – Storing visual and spatial information • Central Executive – attention, planning, organization

  19. Long Term Memory • Relatively enduring (from minutes to years) retention of information stored about facts, skills, experiences • larger capacity • longer duration • biggest drop within 2 years, then levels off • Permastore: appears to be permanent after initial drop-off • How you initially learn is more important that how long ago you studies it.

  20. Types of Long Term Memory EXPLICIT: information that we can recall intentionally • AKA declarative memory • Requires effort and awareness • Episodic: memory for an event where one was present • Example: Your 16th birthday • Semantic: memory of generalized knowledge • Example: 16th President of the U.S.

  21. Types of Long Term Memory IMPLICIT: recalling information without doing it deliberately (not conscious effort; unintentional) • Procedural: memory of how something is done; motor skills and habits • e.g. how to tie your shoes • Example: Classical Conditioning • Priming: ability to identify a stimulus more easily or quickly when similar stimuli were previously encountered • AQUARIUM • SWIM • F___

  22. Long Term Memory • Can you think of an activity that might necessitate three types of memory: episodic, semantic, & procedural? • Sports • Episodic – what happened in the last game? • Semantic – knowing the rules of the game • Procedural – skills required (e.g., dribbling ball, skating, shooting)

  23. How Memory is Organized - Schemata • A schema is a set of beliefs or expectations about something based on past experience • Incoming information is fit with existing schemata • concept maps • Schemata can also influence the amount of attention paid to a given event • Schematic Script

  24. Schemas • Script: type of schema specifying set order of expected events • Reduces cognitive effort by simplifying world • Oversimplifying • memory illusions Remove clothes Turn on faucet Check water temperature Step into shower Soap

  25. Unit 2 Section 3- MemoryRetrieval

  26. Retrieval • Reactivation or reconstruction of experiences from memory storage • Example: retrieving the correct book from shelf in the library

  27. Serial Position Effect (RECALL) • People tend to recall the first items (primacy effect) and last items (recency effect) in a list • Demonstrates how short- and long-term memory work together • Primacy effect reflects long-term memory • Recency effect reflects short-term memory

  28. Long Term Memory Serial Position Curve Primacy effect - remember early words better - more reps? Recency effect - remember late words better - still in STM Von Restorff effect - remember unique / distinctive words better

  29. Retrieval Cues Retrieval cues – hints to make it easier • Driving past restaurant took girlfriend last year

  30. Measuring Memory • Recall : generating previously remembered information • Essay questions, Jeopardy • Recognition: selecting previously remembered information from an array of options • Multiple choice tests, Who Wants to Be a Millionaire

  31. Recall • Please write down the names of the twelve signs of the zodiac.

  32. Recall • By a show of hands, how many of you were able to recall ALL TWELVE of the Zodiac names?

  33. Recognition Aries Hydra Leo Libra Zeus Minerva Pisces Asteria Taurus Gemini Ceres Scorpio Sagittarius Promethus Capricorn Athena Hestia Cancer Virgo Apollo Themis Atlas Chronos Aquarius

  34. Recognition Aries Hydra Leo Libra Zeus Minerva Pisces Asteria Taurus Gemini Ceres Scorpio Sagittarius Promethus Capricorn Athena Hestia Cancer Virgo Apollo Themis Atlas Chronos Aquarius

  35. Retrieval • Why is it easier to recognize than to recall? • Recall requires two steps: • generating an answer • evaluating whether the answer is correct • Recognition only requires evaluation of (picking) the correct answer

  36. Encoding Specificity • Remember something better when conditions of retrieval are similar to conditions of encoding • Context-dependent learning • Doesn’t always replicate • State-dependent learning • Similar internal state • Doesn’t always replicate • Mood-dependent learning

  37. Special Cases of Retrieval • Extraordinary memory • Includes eidetic imagery • Likely due to well developed memory techniques • Flashbulb Memory – Imagery and intense nature of event heightens accuracy of information and engrains it • Allows for interpretation and recreation • Stress hormones in personal trauma (amygdala) • Autobiographical Memories: Special form Episodic Memory • (2nd and 3rd Decades of life – Novel Experiences/Identity)

  38. Special Topics in Retrieval • Eyewitness testimony • Shown to be unreliable • People’s recall for events may be influenced by what they heard or constructed after the incident • Memory is reconstructed • Memories are not stored like snapshots, but are instead like sketches that are altered and added to every time they are called up • At least 255 convictions on eyewitness testimony overturned on non-matching DNA evidence • Witnesses overconfident in their accuracy • Stressful situation/weapon focus • Sequential vs. simultaneous lineups • Blind presentation of the lineup

  39. Special Topics in Retrieval • Eyewitness testimony cont’d • Elizabeth Loftus has shown subjects who are given false information about an event or scene tend to incorporate it into their memories, and "recall" the false information as a part of their original memory even two weeks later. • Loftus gives the example of the sniper attacks in the fall of 2002. "Everybody was looking for a white van even though the bad guys ended up having a dark Chevy Caprice." That's because some people reported seeing a white van at the scene of the crime. "Witnesses overhear each other," says Loftus, and police may also unintentionally influence people's memories when they talk about a crime.

  40. Unit 2 – Section 4 - Forgetting

  41. An inability to retrieve information due to poor encoding, storage, or retrieval. Forgetting • Why do we forget? • Biological Reasons • Experience Factors Forgetting can occur at any memory stage. We filter, alter, or lose much information during these stages.

  42. Stress Hormones & Memory • Heightened emotions (stress-related or otherwise) make for stronger memories. • Hormones such as Epinephrine act on brain centers in the brain • Extreme stress undermines learning and later recall • How does this apply to an exam?

  43. Biological Factors • Nervous System • Damage to the Hippocampus • Difficulty forming new memories • Diminished in Alzheimer’s patients • Neurotransmitters play a role • Acetylcholine • Alzheimer’s patients show low levels of this • Decay theory (Ebbinhaus) • Memories deteriorate because of the passage of time • Distractor Studies – information fades from STM

  44. Bahrick (1984) showed a similar pattern of forgetting and retaining over 50 years.

  45. Retrieval Aspect: Motivated Forgetting • Repressed Memory:Adefense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness. • * Forgets the act of forgetting Motivated Forgetting:People unknowingly revise their memories. * Where does suggestion fit in? Sigmund Freud

  46. Some “forgetting” isn’t a retrieval problem at all. Encoding Failure We cannot remember what we do not encode.

  47. Retrieval Failure Although the information is retained in the memory store, it cannot be accessed. • Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) is a retrieval failure phenomenon. • Interference

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