References

1. References Thomas J. Bergin © Computing History Museum American University

2. References: Numeration • Bunch and Hellemans, The Timetables of Technology, Simon & Schuster, 1993 • A major source of information about hieroglyphics can be found at: 195.8.72.23/numbers.htm ©Mark Millmore

3. References: Early Aids • Michael R. Williams, A History of Computing Technology, IEEE Computer Society Press, 2nd edition, 1997 • www.arithmeum.de, a museum for the history of calculation, in Bonn, Germany (from the collection of Proof. Bernhard Korte, University of Bonn)

4. References: Babbage • Doron Swade, Charles Babbage and his Calculating Engines, Science Museum, London, 1991 • Doron Swade, The Cogwheel Brain, Charles Babbage and the Quest to build the First Computer, Little, Brown and Company, 2000 • J.A.N.Lee, Computer Pioneers, IEEE Press, 1995 • Brian Randell, ed., The Origins of Digital Computers, Selected Papers, Springer, 1973 • Bunch & Hellemans, The Timetables of Technology, Simon and Schuster, 1993

5. Michael Lindgren, Glory and Failure, The Difference Engines of Johann Mueller, Charles Babbage, and Georg and Edvard Scheutz, MIT Press, 1990 • William Aspray, ed., Computing Before Computers, Iowa State University Press, 1990 • Aspray and Campbell-Kelly, Computer: A History of the Information Machine, BasicBooks, 1996 • Video: The Machine That Changed the World, first 10 minutes

6. Babbage Biographies • Anthony Hyman, Charles Babbage: pioneer of the computer, Princeton U Press, 1982 • Maboth Mosley, Irascible genius: a life of Charles Babbage, inventor, London, Hutchinson, 1964 • Dorothy Stein, Ada: a life and legacy, MIT Press, 1985 • Doris Langley Moore, Ada, Countess of Lovelace: Byron’s legitimate daughter, London, John Murray, 1977

7. References: Hollerith • Geoffrey D. Austrian, HERMAN HOLLERITH: Forgotten Giant of Information Processing,Columbia U. Press, 1982 (definitive work) • Biles, et al, “Herman Hollerith: Inventor, Manager, Entrepreneur -- A Centennial Remembrance,” Journal of Management, Vol. 15, No.4, 1989 • Keith Reid-Green, “The History of Census Tabulation,” Scientific American, February 1989 • Bache, IBM’s Early Computers, MIT Press, 1986. • Campbell-Kelly in Aspray, Computing Before Computers, Iowa State U. Press, 1990

8. Hollerith Biographies: • William Rogers, THINK, A biography of the Watsons and IBM, Stein and Day, 1969 • Belden and Belden, The Lengthening Shadow: The Life of Thomas J. Watson, Little Brown, 1962 • Thomas Watson, Jr.., Father, Son and Company, Bantam, 19908

9. References: Information Appliances • National Geographic Society, Inventors and Discoverers, Changing Our World, 1988 • Steven Lubar, Information Appliances, 1994 • James R. Beniger, The Control Revolution: Technological and Economic Origins of the Information Society, Harvard U. Press, 1986

10. Office Appliances References • James W. Cortada, Before the Computer, Princeton University Press, 1993 • Michael Williams, “Early Calculators,” in Aspray, ed., Computing Before Computers, Iowa State University Press, 1990

11. Office Appliances References • John Brooks, Telephone, The First Hundred Years, Harper & Row, 1975 • Edwin Darby, It All Adds Up, the Growth of the Victor Comptometer Company, Victor Comptometer Company, 1968 • Stanley C. Allyn, My half century with NCR, McGraw-Hill, 1967 • Bryan Morgan, Total to Date, Burroughs Adding Machine London, 1953

12. References: Analog Computers • “Analog Computing Devices,” by Allan G. Bromley in William Aspray, ed. Computing Before Computers, Iowa State U. Press, 1990 • “The Analog Animals,” in Michael R. Williams, History of Computing Technology, IEEE Press, 1997 • J. Crank, The Differential Analyzer, Longmans, Green, 1947 • D.R. Hartree, Calculating Instruments and Machines, U. Of Illinois Press, 1953

13. References: Mechanical Monsters • Paul E. Ceruzzi, “Electronic Calculators,” in Aspray, Computing Before Computers, Iowa State University Press, 1990 • Paul E. Ceruzzi, Reckoners:The Prehistory of the Digital Computer, from Relays to the Stored Program Concept, 1935-1945, Greenwood Press, 1983 • Brian Randell, The Origins of Digital Computers: Selected Papers, Springer, 1982

14. References: Mechanical Monsters • Stibitz, “Automatic Computing Machinery,” in Randell, Origins...., (essay written in 1940) • Stibitz, “Automatic Computing Machinery,” in Annals, 4/ 2 (April 1982) 1947 and 1950 memos • Stibitz, “Early Computers,” in N. Metropolis, A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century, Academic Press, 1980 • Charles J. Bashe, et al, IBM’s Early Computers, MIT Press, 1986

15. References: Mechanical Monsters • www.arithmeum.de • www.hnf.de/museum • http://irb.cs.tu-berlin.de/~zuse/Konrad_Zuse

16. Mechanical Monsters Biographies • Konrad Zuse, The Computer, My Life, • I. Bernard Cohen, Howard Aiken: Portrait of a Computer Pioneer, MIT Press, 1999J.A.N. Lee, Computer Pioneers, IEEE Press, 1995 • Charlene W. Billings, Grace Hopper, Navy Admiral & Computer Pioneer, Enslow Publishers, 1989. • Herbert R. J. Grosch, Computer: Bit Slices From a Life, Third Millennium Books, 1991

17. References: Atanasoff • J.V. Atanasoff, “Computing Machine for the Solution of large Systems of Linear Algebraic Equations,” (August 1940) in Randell (Ed.), The Origins of Digital Computers, Selected Papers, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1973 • J.V. Atanasoff, “Advent of Electronic Digital Computing,” Annals, Vol..6, No.3 (July 1984)

18. References: Atanasoff • Saul Rosen, “The Origins of Modern Computing, ACMComputing Reviews, Sept. 1960 • Joel Shurkin, Engines of the Mind, The Evolution of the Computer from Mainframes to Microprocessors, W.W. Norton, 1984 • Allan R. Mackintosh, Dr. Atanasoff’s Computer,” Scientific American, August 1988 • Allan R. Mackintosh, “The First Electronic Computer,” Physics Today, March 1987

19. References: Atanasoff • R.K. Richards, Electronic Digital Systems, New York, Wiley (1966) • ACM Computing Reviews, September 1990

20. Atanasoff Biography • Clark R. Mollenhoff, ATANASOFF, Forgotten Father of the Computer, Iowa State University Press, 1988. • Alice R. And Arthur W. Burks, The First Electronic Computer: The Atanasoff Story, U. of Michigan Press, 1988

21. References: ENIAC • Nancy Stern, From ENIAC to UNIVAC, An Appraisal of the Eckert-Mauchly Computers, Digital Press, 1981 [major research effort] • Herman H. Goldstine, The Computer, from Pascal to von Neumann, Princeton University Press, 1972 • Goldstine was a participant • N. Metropolis, et.al., A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century, Academic Press, 1980 • Brian Randell, ed.,The Origins of Digital Computers, Springer-Verlag, 1973

22. References: ENIAC • Arthur W. Burks and Alice R. Burks, “The ENIAC: First General-Purpose Electronic Computer,” Annals, Vol.3, No.4 [participant] • Barkley Fritz, “ENIAC--A Problem Solver,” Annals, Vol.16, No. 1 (1994) [worked on ENIAC] • Barkley Fritz, “The Women of ENIAC,” Annals, Vol.18, No.3 (Fall 1996) • Herman H. Goldstine, “Computers at the University of Pennsylvania’s Moore School, 1943-1946, Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Vol 136, No1 (1992) [participant]

23. IEEE Annals of the History of Computing,18/1, Spring 1996 • H.H. Goldstine, “The Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC),” pp. 10-16. • Dilys Winegrad, “The Birth of Modern Computing: The Fiftieth Anniversary of a Discovery At The Moore School of Engineering of the University of Pennsylvania,” pp..5-9. • Mitchell Marcus and Atsushi Akera, “Exploring The Architecture of an Early Machine: The Historical Significance of the ENIAC Machine Architecture, pp.. 17-24

24. IEEE Annals, 18/1, Spring 1996 • Peter Eckstein, “J. Presper Eckert,” pp..25-44 • John Costello, “As the Twig is Bent: The Early Life of John Mauchly,” pp.45-50 • David Alan Grier, “The ENIAC, the Verb “to program” and the Emergence of Digital Computers,” pp.51-55

25. References: ENIAC • Nancy B. Stern, From ENIAC to UNIVAC, An Appraisal of the Eckert-Mauchly Computers, Digital Press, 1981 • Kathleen R. Mauchly, “John Mauchly’s Early Years, Annals, Vol.6, No.2 (April 1984) • Herman Goldstine, From Pascal to von Neumann, Princeton University Press, 1972 • Emerson Pugh, Memories that Shaped an Industry, MIT Press, 1984

26. References: Other Early Projects • Redmond & Smith, Project Whirlwind, The History of A Pioneer Computer, Digital Press, 1980. • I. Bernard Cohen, Howard Aiken, Portrait of A Computer Pioneer, MIT Press, 1999 • William Aspray, John von Neumann and the Origins of Modern Computing, MIT Press

27. References: UK Computing • Caminer, et al, LEO, The Incredible Story of the World’s First Business Computer, McGraw-Hill, 1998 • Lavington, Early British Computers, Digital Press, 1980 • Hendry, Innovating for Failure: Government Policy and the Early British Computer Industry, MIT Press, 1989.

28. References: Mainframe • Maurice V. Wilkes, Memoirs of a Computer Pioneer, MIT Press, 1985 • David E. Lundstrom, A Few Good Men from Univac, MIT Press, 1987 • Charles J. Bashe, et.al, IBM’s Early Computers, MIT Press, 1986 • Emerson Pugh, et.al., IBM’s 360 and Early 370 Systems, MIT Press, 1991

29. References: Transistors • Photos courtesy of Lucent Technologies and other web sources • Bunch and Hellemans, The Timetables of Technology, Simon and Schuster, 1993 • Lee, J.A.N., Computer Pioneers, IEEE Press, 1995

30. References: Minicomputers • Pearson (ed), Digital At Work: Snapshots from the first thirty-five years, Digital Press, 1992 • Shurkin, Engines of the Mind, the evolution of the Computer from Mainframes to Microprocessors, W.W. Norton, 1984 • Gordon Bell et al, Computer Engineering: A DEC View of Hardware Systems Design

31. References: Microcomputers • Freiberger and Swaine, Fire in the Valley: The Making of the Personal Computer, Osborne/McGraw-Hill, 1984 • Bunch and Hellemans, The Timetables of Technology, Simon and Schuster, 1993 • Lee, J.A.N., Computer Pioneers, IEEE Press, 1995