Choice, Deterrence, Biological, and Psychological Theories

1. Choice, Deterrence, Biological, and Psychological Theories

2. Slide 2 CHAPTER OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, you should be able to: Contrast the classical and positive schools of criminological thought. Understand choice theory. Understand deterrence theory. Explain Lombroso’s atavism theory and Sheldon’s somatotype theory. Summarize twin and adoption studies.

3. Slide 3 CHAPTER OBJECTIVES (continued) After completing this chapter, you should be able to: Describe biochemical and neurological factors that impact delinquency. Identify the major arguments presented by psychoanalytic theory. Describe the relationship between moral development and delinquency. Describe the impact of personality disorders on delinquency. Summarize the three major learning theories.

4. Slide 4 4.1 Theories of Juvenile Delinquency There are several theories that attempt to explain why juveniles commit delinquent acts. theory: A formalized idea or set of principles that attempt to define and explain a phenomenon.

5. Slide 5 Theories of Juvenile Delinquency Theories are also used to design programs and policies to decrease delinquency. Popular theories are: • Choice • Deterrence • Biological • Psychological

6. Slide 6 Theories of Juvenile Delinquency These theories all say juveniles commit delinquent acts because they choose to do so either because of some biological factor or because of some psychological malady.

7. Slide7 SELF CHECK Why do juvenile delinquents commit delinquent acts according to the choice, deterrence, biological, and psychological theories?

8. Slide 8 4.2 Classical and Positive Schools of Thought Two major schools of criminological thought are based on different assumptions about juveniles and their actions. • Classical school • Positive school

9. Slide 9 Classical School • The classical school of thought controlled judicial policy in the U.S. until the late 1800s. • According to classical thought, behavior is rational and a product of free will. free will: The ability to make a choice among various alternatives.

10. Slide 10 Positive School • The positive school of thought began to influence juvenile criminal justice practices in the late 1800s. • The positive school believes that behavior is beyond an individual’s control.

11. Slide 11 Positive School The influence of the positive school of thought increased for two reasons: • The emergence of the scientific method as a means to study factors leading to delinquency • The perception that punishment had failed to reduce crime

12. Slide 12 Positive School Positive criminologists looked at factors that led to crime: • Biological factors • Psychological factors • Social factors

13. Slide 13 Comparison of Key Concepts From the Classical and the Positive Schools of Thought FIGURE 4-1 • Classical School • Free will • Hedonistic human • Emphasis on offense • Punishment • Positive School • Determinism • Multiple causes • Emphasis on offender • Rehabilitation

14. Slide 14 SELF CHECK Briefly describe the classical school. Who was its best known proponent? What beliefs were held by the positive school?

15. Slide 15 4.3 Choice Theory • In the late 1970s, the major beliefs of the classical school re-emerged and are now often referred to as rational choice or choice theory.

16. Slide 16 Choice Theory Three reasons explain this renewed interest in the classical school of thought: • Criminologists began to question the belief on which the positive school was based. Research failed to identify and isolate factors and traits that produce crime. • The reported crime rate in the 1960s and 1970s increased significantly. • The practice of rehabilitation came under attack, because it was not effective.

17. Slide 17 Choice Theory • Judicial policy began to focus on the offense and not the offender, and to emphasize the need for punishment, not rehabilitation.

18. Slide 18 Choice Theory Those who support the use of punishment to control delinquency assume that: • Juveniles are making a choice to commit criminal acts. • Delinquents can be deterred if the risks outweigh the benefits.

19. Slide 19 Routine Activities • Routine activities theory—developed by Lawrence Cohen and Marcus Felson—is based on the idea of rational choice. • This theory argues that the motivation to commit crime and the supply of offenders are constant. Changes in crime rates are due to changes in the number of motivated offenders.

20. Slide 20 Routine Activities Routine activities theory states that crime occurs when there is a convergence in time and space of the following three factors: • A motivated offender • A suitable target • The absence of a capable guardian

21. Slide 21 SELF CHECK What are the three reasons for the renewed interest in the classical school? How do Lawrence Cohen and Marcus Felson explain the changes in crime rates?

22. Slide 22 4.4 Deterrence Theory • Deterrence theory follows directly from choice theory. • Juveniles commit crime because they make a choice to do so, and this choice is based on the perceived risks and benefits of committing the delinquent act.

23. Slide 23 Deterrence Theory There are two forms of deterrence: • Specific deterrence • General deterrence specific deterrence: A sanction imposed on adjudicated delinquents in order to prevent them from continuing to commit delinquent acts in the future. general deterrence: Seeks to discourage would-be delinquents from committing delinquent acts because of the threat of punishment.

24. Slide 24 Deterrence Theory The deterrence theory involves at least four assumptions: • Individuals are rational actors. • Juveniles must be aware of the penalty for particular crimes. • Juveniles must view the risks as unpleasant. • The sanction must be swift, certain, and severe.

25. Slide 25 Deterrence Theory Evidence supports the contention that informal sanctions from parents and friends serve as more of a deterrent than legal sanctions.

26. Slide 26 Deterrence Theory Why doesn’t the fear of sanctions deter juveniles from delinquency? • Many juveniles are not rational actors—they act spontaneously, without premeditation. • Juveniles may not perceive the risk of apprehension and punishment to be high.

27. Slide 27 SELF CHECK Name the four assumptions underlying the deterrence theory. How effective is the deterrence theory?

28. Slide 28 4.5 Biological Theories • The first theories developed from the positive school of criminology were biological theories. • These theories state that there are biological differences between delinquents and nondelinquents.

29. Slide 29 Morphological Approach The morphological approach is the oldest biological theory of crime. • It states that criminals are biologically inferior to noncriminals. • Further, biological inferiority produces physical characteristics that make the appearance of criminals and noncriminals different.

30. Slide 30 Lombroso’s Atavism Theory • The father of the positive school is Cesare Lombroso, who was a doctor in the Italian army. He is most recognized for his idea that criminals displayed atavism. atavism: Reversion to a primitive type.

31. Slide 31 Lombroso’s Atavism Theory • Lombroso studied cadavers of criminals and found similar physical characteristics, which he called atavistic anomalies. • However, his work has been discredited because he didn’t study noncriminals, who are just as likely to have similar characteristics.

32. Slide 32 Sheldon’s Somatotype Theory William Sheldon also attempted to link physical appearance to delinquency. Sheldon focused on three somatotypes (body types): endomorph: Body structure that is soft, round, and fat. • Endomorph mesomorph: Body structure that is muscular, firm, and strong. • Mesomorph • Ectomorph ectomorph: Body structure that is thin and frail.

33. Slide 33 Sheldon’s Somatotypes Somatotype 1 Endomorphic: relatively great development of digestive viscera; tendency to put on fat; soft roundness through various regions of the body; short tapering limbs; small bones; soft, smooth, velvety skin Accompanying Temperament Viscerotonic: general relaxation of body; a comfortable person; loves soft luxury; a “softie” but still essentially an extrovert

34. Somatotype 2Mesomorphic: relative predominance of muscles, bone, and the motor organs of the body; large trunk; heavy chest; large wrists and hands; if “lean,” a hard rectangularity of outline; if “not lean,” they fill out evenlyAccompanying TemperamentSomotonic: active, dynamic person; walks, talks, gestures assertively; behaves aggressively Slide 34 Sheldon’s Somatotypes

35. Slide 35 Sheldon’s Somatotypes Somatotype 3Ectomorphic: relative predominance of skin and its appendages, which includes the nervous system; lean, fragile, delicate body; small, delicate bones; droopy shoulders; small face; sharp nose; fine hair; relatively little body mass and relatively great surface areaAccompanying TemperamentCerebrotonic: an introvert; full of functional complaints, allergies, skin troubles, chronic fatigue, insomnia; sensitive to noise and distractions; shrinks from crowds

36. Slide 36 Genetic and Inherited Factors • Criminal behavior tends to run in families. • Researchers have tried to determine whether criminal behavior is genetic or learned through studying twins and adoption.

37. Slide 37 Twin Studies • One way to examine the impact of genetics on delinquency is to analyze the behavior of monozygotic or identical twins. monozygotic or identical twins: Twins that develop from one egg and one sperm. • Because they are genetically identical, it would be reasonable to expect that their delinquent behavior would be similar.

38. Slide 38 Twin Studies • Identical twins are compared to dizygotic or fraternal twins. • If heredity plays a role in delinquency, one would expect that identical twins have a higher concordance rate of delinquent behavior than fraternal twins. concordance rate: The similarity of delinquent behavior. dizygotic or fraternal twins: Twins that develop from two eggs and two sperm.

39. Slide 39 Twin Studies • One study showed identical twins had a higher concordance rate than fraternal twins. • But identical twins are also raised alike. No study has proven that genetics is the cause of the concordance, rather than environmental factors.

40. Slide 40 Adoption Studies • Another way researchers have analyzed the relationship between heredity and delinquency has been to conduct adoption studies. • Adoption studies are better than twin studies at isolating biological influences on delinquency.

41. Slide 41 Adoption Studies Four possible combinations of criminal behavior in parents and children exist: • The biological and adoptive parents do not have a criminal record. • The biological parents have a criminal record but the adoptive parents do not. • The biological parents do not have a criminal record but the adoptive parents do. • The biological and adoptive parents both have criminal records.

42. Slide 42 Adoption Studies • A study done in Denmark found that the greatest impact on delinquency was when both biological and adoptive parents had criminal records. • Therefore, both biological and environmental factors influence delinquency.

43. Slide 43 Biochemical and Neurological Approach Most biological theories today focus on biosocial factors. • Biological factors in and of themselves rarely lead to delinquency. They are like a loaded gun. • Social factors pull the trigger. biosocial factors: Interaction between biological and social factors that lead to delinquency.

44. Slide 44 Biochemical Factors • Biochemical explanation of delinquency suggests that chemical deficiencies or abnormalities in the body can affect a juvenile’s behavior, especially acts of aggression.

45. Slide 45 Biochemical Factors Research has found several biochemical factors related to delinquency. • Dietary influences—high sugar intake, high calcium intake, imbalances in vitamins, etc. • Fetal alcohol syndrome and prenatal drug use • Hormones—particularly testosterone, which as been linked to aggression

46. Slide 46 Biochemical Factors hormones: Substances produced by the body that control such bodily functions as central nervous system functioning and reproduction. Fetal alcohol syndrome Fetal alcohol Syndrome (FAS): A condition caused by the effect that alcohol has on a developing fetus. Hormones

47. Slide 47 Autonomic Nervous System • The autonomic nervous system produces the body’s “fight or flight” response. autonomic nervous system: Controls the body’s involuntary functions such as blood pressure and heart rate.

48. Slide 48 Autonomic Nervous System When a person is presented with an unpleasant stimulus such as the threat of punishment, the person’s heart and breathing rates increase, and they begin to perspire. The person tries to avoid the punishment.

49. Slide 49 Learning Disabilities • The underlying reason for school failure may be learning disability. • School failure has been linked to drop-out rates and delinquency. More than half of juvenile offenders tested have learning disabilities, compared with 10% of the general population.

50. Slide 50 Learning Disabilities One learning disability that has been linked to delinquency is Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): A learning disability characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.