September 7, 2006 Lecture 2

1. September 7, 2006Lecture 2 IS 2150 / TEL 2810 Introduction to Security

2. Mathematics Review

3. Propositional logic/calculus • Atomic, declarative statements (propositions) • that can be shown to be either TRUE or FALSE but not both; E.g., “Sky is blue”; “3 is less than 4” • Propositions can be composed into compound sentences using connectives • Negation  p (NOT) highest precedence • Disjunction p  q (OR) second precedence • Conjunction p  q (AND) second precedence • Implication p  q q logical consequence of p • Exercise: Truth tables?

4. Propositional logic/calculus • Contradiction: • Formula that is always false : p  p • What about: (p  p)? • Tautology: • Formula that is always True : p  p • What about: (p  p)? • Others • Exclusive OR: p  q; p or q but not both • Bi-condition: p  q [p if and only if q (p iff q)] • Logical equivalence: p  q [p is logically equivalent to q] • Some exercises…

5. Some Laws of Logic • Double negation • DeMorgan’s law • (p  q)  (p  q) • (p  q)  (p q) • Commutative • (p  q) (q  p) • Associative law • p  (q  r) (p q)  r • Distributive law • p  (q  r) (p q)  (p  r) • p  (q  r) (p q)  (p  r)

6. Predicate/first order logic • Propositional logic • Variable, quantifiers, constants and functions • Consider sentence: Every directory contains some files • Need to capture “every” “some” • F(x): x is a file • D(y): y is a directory • C(x, y): x is a file in directory y

7. Predicate/first order logic • Existential quantifiers  (There exists) • E.g.,  x is read as There exists x • Universal quantifiers  (For all) • y D(y)  (x (F(x) C(x, y))) • read as • for every y, if y is a directory, then there exists a x such that x is a file and x is in directory y • What about x F(x)  (y (D(y) C(x, y)))?

8. Mathematical Induction • Proof technique - to prove some mathematical property • E.g. want to prove that M(n) holds for all natural numbers • Base case OR Basis: • Prove that M(1) holds • Induction Hypothesis: • Assert that M(n) holds for n = 1, …, k • Induction Step: • Prove that if M(k) holds then M(k+1) holds

9. Mathematical Induction • Exercise: prove that sum of first n natural numbers is • S(n): 1 + … + n = n (n + 1)/2 • S(n): 1^2+ .. +n^2 = n (n +1)(2n + 1)/6

10. Lattice • Sets • Collection of unique elements • Let S, T be sets • Cartesian product: S x T = {(a, b) | a  A, b  B} • A set of order pairs • Binary relation R from S to T is a subset of S x T • Binary relation R on S is a subset of S x S • If (a, b)  R we write aRb • Example: • R is “less than equal to” () • For S = {1, 2, 3} • Example of R on Sis {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), ????) • (1, 2)  R is another way of writing 1  2

11. Lattice • Properties of relations • Reflexive: • if aRa for all a  S • Anti-symmetric: • if aRb and bRa implies a = b for all a, b  S • Transitive: • if aRb and bRc imply that aRc for all a, b, c  S • Which properties hold for “less than equal to” ()? • Draw the Hasse diagram Captures • all the relations

12. Lattice • Total ordering: • when the relation orders all elements • E.g., “less than equal to” () on natural numbers • Partial ordering (poset): • the relation orders only some elements not all • E.g. “less than equal to” () on complex numbers; Consider (2 + 4i) and (3 + 2i)

13. Lattice • Upper bound (u, a, b  S) • uis an upper bound of a and b means aRu and bRu • Least upper bound : lub(a, b)closest upper bound • Lower bound (u, a, b  S) • l is a lower bound of a and b means lRa and lRb • Greatest lower bound : glb(a, b)closest lower bound

14. Lattice • A lattice is the combination of a set of elements S and a relation R meeting the following criteria • R is reflexive, antisymmetric, and transitive on the elements of S • For every s, t S, there exists a greatest lower bound • For every s, t S, there exists a lowest upper bound • Some examples • S = {1, 2, 3} and R = ? • S = {2+4i; 1+2i; 3+2i, 3+4i} and R = ?

15. Overview of Lattice Based Models • Confidentiality • Bell LaPadula Model • First rigorously developed model for high assurance - for military • Objects are classified • Objects may belong to Compartments • Subjects are given clearance • Classification/clearance levels form a lattice • Two rules • No read-up • No write-down

16. Access Control Matrix

17. ACM Background • Access Control Matrix • Captures the current protection state of a system • Butler Lampson proposed the first Access Control Matrix model • Graham and Denning refined it • Harrison, Russo and Ulman modified it and presented some theoretical results

18. Protection System • State of a system • Current values of • memory locations, registers, secondary storage, etc. • other system components • Protection state (P) • A system state that is considered secure • A protection system • Captures the conditions for state transition • Consists of two parts: • A set of generic rights • A set of commands

19. Protection System • Subject (S: set of all subjects) • Active entities that carry out an action/operation on other entities; Eg.: users, processes, agents, etc. • Object (O: set of all objects) • Eg.:Processes, files, devices • Right (R: set of all rights) • An action/operation that a subject is allowed/disallowed on objects • Access Matrix A: a[s, o] ⊆R • Set of Protection States: (S, O, A)

20. Access Control Matrix Model • Access control matrix • Describes the protection state of a system. • Elements indicate the access rights that subjects have on objects • ACM is an abstract model • Rights may vary depending on the objects involved • ACM is implemented primarily in two ways • Capabilities (rows) • Access control lists (columns)

21. Access Control Matrix

22. Access Control Matrix • telegraph is a PC with ftp client but no server • nob provides NFS but not to Toadfax • nob and toadfax can exchange mail

23. State Transitions • Let initial state X0 = (S0, O0, A0) • Notation • Xi├i+1Xi+1: upon transition i+1, the system moves from state Xi to Xi+1 • X ├* Y: the system moves from state X toY after a set of transitions • Xi├ ci+1(pi+1,1, pi+1,2, …, pi+1,m)Xi+1: state transition upon a command • For every command there is a sequence of state transition operations

24. Primitive commands(Graham-Denning)

25. Primitive commands (HRU)

26. System commands • [Unix] process p creates file f with owner read and write (r, w) will be represented by the following: Command create_file(p, f) Create object f Enter own into a[p,f] Enter r into a[p,f] Enter w into a[p,f] End

27. Process p creates a new process q Command spawn_process(p, q) Create object q; Enter own into a[p,q] Enter r into a[p,q] Enter w into a[p,q] Enter r into a[q,r] Enter w into a[q,r] End

28. System commands • Defined commands can be used to update ACM Command make_owner(p, f) Enter own into a[p,f] End • Mono-operational: the command invokes only one primitive

29. Conditional Commands • Mono-operational + mono-conditional Command grant_read_file(p, f, q) If own in a[p,f] Then Enter r into a[q,f] End

30. Conditional Commands • Mono-operational + biconditional Command grant_read_file(p, f, q) If r in a[p,f] andc in a[p,f] Then Enter r into a[q,f] End • Why not “OR”??

31. Attenuation of privilege • Principle of attenuation • A subject may not give rights that it does not posses to others • Copy • Augments existing rights • Often attached to a right, so only applies to that right • r is read right that cannot be copied • rc is read right that can be copied • Also called the grant right

32. Attenuation of privilege • Own • Allows adding or deleting rights, and granting rights to others • Creator has the own right • Subjects may be granted own right • Owner may give rights that he does not have to others on the objects he owns (chown command) • Example: John owns file f but does not have read permission over it. John can grant read right on f to Matt.

33. Fundamental questions • How can we determine that a system is secure? • Need to define what we mean by a system being “secure” • Is there a generic algorithm that allows us to determine whether a computer system is secure? • We will wait till next time …..

34. Unix File System Overview

35. Unix file security • Each file has owner and group • Permissions set by owner • Read, write, execute • Owner, group, other • Represented by vector of four octal values • Only owner, root can change permissions • This privilege cannot be delegated or shared

36. Unix File Permissions • File type, owner, group, others drwx------ 2 jjoshi isfac 512 Aug 20 2003 risk management lrwxrwxrwx 1 jjoshi isfac 15 Apr 7 09:11 risk_m->risk management -rw-r--r-- 1 jjoshi isfac 1754 Mar 8 18:11 words05.ps -r-sr-xr-x 1 root bin 9176 Apr 6 2002 /usr/bin/rs -r-sr-sr-x 1 root sys 2196 Apr 6 2002 /usr/bin/passwd • File type: regular -, directory d, symlink l, device b/c, socket s, fifo f/p • Permission: r, w, x, s or S (set.id), t (sticky)

37. User ids • Each process has three Ids • Real user ID (RUID) • same as the user ID of parent (unless changed) • used to determine which user started the process • Effective user ID (EUID) • from set user ID bit on the file being executed, or sys call • determines the permissions for process • Saved user ID (SUID) • Allows restoring previous EUID

38. User ids • Similarly we have • Real group ID, • Effective group ID, • While accessing files • Process EUID compared against the file UID • GIDs are compared

39. IDs/Operations • Root can access any file • Fork and Exec • Inherit three IDs, • except exec of file with setuid bit • Setuid system calls • seteuid(newid) can set EUID to • Real ID or saved ID, regardless of current EUID • Any ID, if EUID=0 • Related calls: setuid, seteuid, setgid, setegid

40. Setid bits on executable Unix file • Three setid bits • setuid • set EUID of process to ID of file owner • setgid • set EGID of process to GID of file • setuid/setgid used when a process executes a file • If setuid (setgid) bit is on – the EUID of the process changed to UID (GUID) of the file • Sticky • Off: if user has write permission on directory, can rename or remove files, even if not owner • On: only file owner, directory owner, and root can rename or remove file in the directory

41. Example Owner 18 RUID 25 SetUID …; …; exec( ); program Owner 18 …; …; i=getruid() setuid(i); …; …; -rw-r--r-- RUID 25 file read/write EUID 18 Owner 25 -rw-r--r-- RUID 25 read/write file EUID 25

42. Careful with Setuid ! • Can do what owner of file is allowed to do • Be sure not to • Take action for untrusted user • Return secret data to untrusted user • Principle of least privilege • change EUID when root privileges no longer needed • Setuid scripts (bad idea) • Race conditions: begin executing setuid program; change contents of program before it loads and is executed