Motivation

2. Motivation Instinct Theory: we are motivated by our inborn automated behaviors. But instincts only explain why we do a small fraction of our behaviors.

3. Drive Reduction Theory Our behavior is motivated by BIOLOGICAL NEEDS. Drive-Reduction Theory: a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need Desire to maintain Homeostasis (tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state) Primary versus Secondary drives Not only are we pushed by our “need to reduce drives, we are also pulled by incentives – positive or negative stimuli that lure or repel us.

4. Arousal Theory Quality of performance Easy task Moderately difficult task Very difficult task Degree of arousal As level of arousal increases, quality of performance decreases with task difficulty • We are motivated to seek an optimum level of arousal. • Yerkes-Dodson Law • High arousal is helpful on easy tasks • Too much arousal is harmful

5. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs • Abraham Maslow said we are motivated by needs, and all needs are not created equal. • We are driven to satisfy the lower level needs first.

8. Hunger Hunger is both physiological and psychological

9. Physiology of Hunger • Washburn’s studies showed hunger was partially related to the stomach. • But those with their stomachs removed still feel hunger.

10. Biological Needs: Hunger • Biological needs are based mainly on body tissue needs, such as need for food, water, air, temperature regulation, and pain avoidance. • Biological needs are complex because they usually involve psychological needs as well. • Food is necessary for survival, but it could also mean much more than mere survival. • For example: Food can symbolize the closeness of the family.

11. Hunger Drive • Hunger is regulated by biological and psychological factors. • The mechanisms involved in the hunger drive include: • The mouth • The stomach • The hypothalamus • The act of chewing and swallowing provide certain sensations that help satisfy the hunger drive. • The hunger drive is satisfied when the body digests food and the nutrients enter the bloodstream.

12. Hunger • The stomach – the growls and contractions of an empty stomach are believed to contribute to the hunger drive. (hunger pangs) • The hypothalamus – the level of sugar in the blood and the hypothalamus are key factors on feelings of hunger. • Glucose – a form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissue. * Low blood glucose levels cause increases in hunger.

13. Hunger • When you have not eaten for a long while (hungry), your blood sugar level drops. • This drop in sugar levels is communicated to the brain (to the hypothalamus), which is involved in the regulation of body temperature and various aspects of psychological motivation and emotion. • It has been found that the side of the hypothalamus (or the lateral hypothalamus (LH)) controls the “start eating” sensation. • For example: If you electrically stimulate the LH, you will become hungry and want to eat food.

14. On the other hand, if the LH is lacerated, cut off, or damaged, you would never feel hungry again from a physical perspective (and lose a lot of weight) OR you would stop eating altogether and starve to death if not force-fed. The underside of the hypothalamus, called the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH), is the part of the brain that controls the “stop eating” sensation. For example: if this part of the hypothalamus is damaged in any way, you will eat and eat until you are completely obese and die. Hunger

15. Leptin Leptin is a protein produced by bloated fat cells. Hypothalamus senses rises in leptin and will curb eating and increase activity. Can leptin injections help me? Set Point Hypothalamus acts like a thermostat. We are meant to be in a certain weight range. When we fall below weight our body will increase hunger and decrease energy expenditure (Basic Metabolic Rate). What happens if we go above our set point? How does the hypothalamus work? Two Theories

16. Psychological Influences: • Externals: People whose eating is triggered more by the presence/smell of food or by the presence of other people eating than internal factors. • Internals: People who are motivated to eat by internal cues, empty stomach, or feelings of hunger. • People eat when they are upset or depressed. They have learned that eating certain foods and amounts brings them a sensation of relaxation/comfort.

17. Taste Preferences Food taste better and we chew less when we are hungry (beginning of a meal). Food tastes worse and we chew more when we are not hungry (at the end of the meal). It’s weird; the better the food tastes, the less time we leave it in our mouths.

18. Eating Disorders: Obesity • One in two American adults are obese. • Obesity is defined as weighing more than 30 percent above one’s recommended weight. • Obesity has both physical and social consequences. • Studies have shown that obese people are more likely than non-obese people to come down with illnesses such as heart disease, diabetes, gout, respiratory problems, and some cancers.

19. Causes of Obesity • Like with hunger drive, both biological and psychological factors influence or contribute to obesity. • Nature vs. Nurture: some research suggests that obesity is not hereditary. • Example: obese parents may simply encourage their children to overeat and eat fatty foods – social learning. • And other research suggests that it is based on heredity. • Example: Adopted children more closely resemble their biological parents, regardless of adoptive parents.

20. Heredity & Obesity • A particular gene may cause them to not receive the signal in the hypothalamus to stop eating. • Also, genes determine the number of fat cells a person has. • People with more fat cells feel hungry sooner than people with fewer fat cells even if they are the same weight. • People metabolize food at different rates, according to the amount of muscle and fat in their bodies. • Men tend to have less body fat than women. Men tend to have more muscle than women.

21. Eating Disorders: Anorexia Nervosa • An eating disorder in which a normal weight person diets and becomes significantly underweight, yet, still feeling fat, continues to starve.

22. Eating Disorders: Bulimia Nervosa • An eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of high caloric foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise.

23. Sex Is Natural • We are all motivated to have sex. • Without that motivation, none of us would be here. How do we (as scientists) find out about sex? We ask!!!!

24. Kinsey’s Studies • Confidential interviews with 18,000 people (in early 1950’s). • Most men and half of all women have premarital sex. • Almost all men and women masturbate. • Women who had orgasms while masturbating were more likely to report having orgasms after marriage. Good Start- but major problems with his study- sampling, questions etc….

25. The Physiology of Sex • In the 1960’s William Masters and Virginia Johnson set out to explore the physiology of sex. • 382 females and 312 males. • Only people who were willing to have sex and display orgasm in a lab environment. • Filmed more than 10,000 sex cycles.

26. Results of M & J Study The Sexual Response Cycle (Four Stages) • Excitement Phase: genitals become engorged in blood (men and women) and women will lubricate. • Plateau Phase: excitement peaks, breathing, pulse increases, tip of penis may exhibit seminal fluid, clitoris retracts- orgasm feels imminent.

27. Results of M & J Study (Continued) • Orgasm: muscle contractions all over the body, women’s contractions actually help propel sperm and position uterus to increase chances of conception. Man and woman only aware of rhythmic genital contractions. • Resolution Phase: everything slows down and men enter a refractory period (which can last from minutes to over a day) where he is incapable of another orgasm.

28. First sexual attraction in both sexes Final maturation of testes in males Final maturation of ovaries in females Sex Drive • Increased production of testosterone and estrogen at puberty is responsible for physical differentiation • Increased secretion of DHEA, primary adrenal sex hormone, is responsible for sexual feelings

29. Male Sex Drive • Testosterone maintains sex drive in adult males • castration decreases drive • testosterone injections or implantation to medial preoptic area restores drive

30. Female Sex Drive • Estrous cycle controls drive in nonhuman mammals • removal of ovaries abolishes drive, while hormone injections restore it • Also, lesions to ventromedial area abolish drive, while injection or implantation restores drive

31. Early Effects of Testosterone • Presence of testosterone during critical period will cause rudimentary genitals of fetus to develop into male structures • Testosterone acts in brain to promote development of neural systems for male sex drive and inhibit systems for female drive • Absence causes development of female structures • Stressful events experienced by pregnant rats reduce level of prenatal testosterone

32. The Psychology of Sex • Only some people are externals when it comes to hunger- but we are all externals when it comes to sex. • Heiman 4 tape study. • People can find sexually explicit images either pleasing or disturbing- but they are none the less biologically arousing.

33. Can External Sexual Stimuli have adverse effects? • Movies of women being coerced or forced into sex tend to increase the viewer’s acceptance of the false idea that women can enjoy it. • Viewing X-Rated films can diminish people’s satisfaction with their own partners. Expectations change. • After viewing attractive women or men on TV- people judge their own partners as less attractive.

34. Imagined Stimuli • Images inside our heads can also effect our sexual motivation. • Both dreams and daydreams can lead to orgasm. • But fantasies to not correspond to reality- just because a women fantasizes about a man “taking her” does not mean she will want it in reality!!!!

35. Adolescent Sexuality Culture • About ½ of all high school kids in US report having sex- rates are higher in Western Europe but lower in Arab or Asian countries. Also change over time in the same culture: in 1900 3% of women reported having sex by 18. Now that number is around half.

36. Only about 1/3 of sexually active male teenagers use condoms- WHY? • Ignorance • Guilt around sex • No Communication • Alcohol Use • Mass Media norms of unprotected promiscuity

37. We have discussed the energizing of sexual motivation but have yet to discuss its direction: Sexual Orientation • An enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own gender or the other gender. Percentage gay, how it feels, cities, brothers.

38. Human Sexual Orientation • Orientation is an early-emerging, ingrained aspect of the self that probably does not change • No consistent relationship between orientation and childhood experiences (e.g., parenting, abuse, sexual experience) • Kids raised by gay parents are no more likely to be gay than if they were raised by heterosexual parents. • Controversial findings suggest a possible relationship among prenatal stress, androgens, and the development of brain systems that play a role in sexual attraction

39. The Brain • Simon LeVay discovered that there is a cluster of cells in the hypothalamus that is larger in heterosexual men than in heterosexual women or homosexual men. • However, the cluster could be socially developed or some other biological factor.

40. Genetics • If one identical twin is homosexual, the other twin has about a 50% chance of being gay (about 20% for fraternal twins). What does this mean?

41. Prenatal Environment • Current research seems to point to the hormonal levels in the prenatal environment. • We have been able to create lesbian sheep!!! What are the ethical issues here?

42. Achievement Motivation • A desire for significant accomplishments; for mastery of things, people, or ideas; for attaining a high standard

43. People who have LOW achievement motivation prefer very easy or very difficult tasks. People with HIGH achievement motivation prefer moderately difficult tasks. Achievement Motivation • Failure is unlikely to be embarrassing • Success is attainable yet attributable to their skill and effort.

44. Achievement Motivation Does high achievement motivation mean success in life?

45. Why are some people highly motivated, while others are not? • There are emotional and cognitive roots. • Children learn to associate achievement with positive emotions. Children learn to associate achievement with expectations (intrinsic or extrinsic). • These structures are usually set in place by parents and teachers. • Nature OR Nurture?

46. Achievement MotivationWhat motivates us to work?(School, job, sports, video games, relationships etc..) Intrinsic Motivators Extrinsic Motivators Reward that we get for accomplishments from outside ourselves (grades or money or etc..) Work great in the short run. • Rewards we get internally, such as enjoyment or satisfaction.

47. Cultivating Intrinsic Motivation

48. Industrial and Organizational Psychology • A subfield in psychology that focuses on how to help organizations recruit, select, compensate and train employees. • The object is to utilize the human factor in an organization to increase productivity.

49. Leadership Style Task Leadership: goal oriented leadership that sets standards and organizes work. Social Leadership: group oriented leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict and offers support .

50. Leadership Perspective: Theory X • Assumes that workers are basically lazy, error-prone, and extrinsically motivated by money. • Must never be trusted and always be watched. • To work more, they must be given money.