Cognitive Views of Learning Cluster 7

1. Cognitive Views of LearningCluster 7 • The Cognitive Perspective • Information Processing • Metacognition • Becoming Knowledgeable

2. The Cognitive View of Learning: A general approach that views learning as an active mental process of acquiring, remembering and using knowledge. Knowledge guides new learning and knowledge is the outcome of learning. • Assumptions about the cognitive perspective: • Knowledge is learned, and changes in knowledge make changes in behavior possible • Reinforcement is seen as a source of feedback about what is likely to happen if behaviors are repeated. Feedback is a source of information • People are seen as active learners who initiate experiences, seek out information to solve problems, and reorganize what they already know to achieve new insights • New cognitive approaches stress the construction of knowledge • Already acquired knowledge determines to a large extent what we will pay attention to, perceive, learn, remember, and forget in the future

3. Comparing PerspectivesDiffer in their assumptions about learning and in their methods

4. Types of Knowledge • General-Information that is useful in many different kinds of tasks; information that applies to many situations • Domain Specific- Information that is useful is a particular situation or that generally applies to only one specific topic No absolute line between general and domain specific knowledge • Declarative-Verbal information facts. Knowing that something is the case, specific facts, personal preferences, personal events, rules • Procedural-Knowledge that is demonstrated when we perform a task. Knowing how to do something • Conditional or structural- Knowing when and why to apply declarative and procedural knowledge

5. Overview of Informational Processing Model of MemoryHuman mind’s activity of taking in, storing, and using information • Encoding • gathering and representing information • process by which information gets into memory • Storage • holding information • Retrieval • getting the information when needed • Control Processes • guides how and when information will flow through the system

6. Sensory Memory • Use of the 5 senses • Holds sensations from the environment for a brief time in their original form • sensory memory for up to several seconds • visual images about ¼ of a second • Very large capacity • Because of its short duration, it is important for students to attend to sensory information that is important for learning • Perception • The meaning we attribute to sensory memory • Heavily influenced by what we already know-example lead vs. lead • Gestalt (pattern/configuration) Theory- organized meaningful wholes vs. bits and pieces • Bottom-Up processing- a.k.a. feature analysis- stimulus is analyzed into features or components and assembled into a meaningful pattern • Top-Down Processing- Based on knowledge and expectations • Attention • limited resource • can only pay attention to one demanding task at a time • Automaticity • ability to process information with little or no effort • perform thoroughly learned tasks without much effort

7. Working Memory a.k.a. Short Term MemorySee Figure 18.3, p. 236 • Holds the information that is currently activated • Capacity: Limited, 5-9 separate new items at once • Duration: Short, about 5-20 seconds (without maintenance rehearsal) • Contents: May be in the form of images or structured more abstractly and based on meaning • Structure: • Central Executive-”Supervisor.” integrates information from the two below, and long term memory as well. Transfers information to the long term memory via strategies such as rehearsing. Plays important roles in attention, planning, and organizing behavior. • Phonological Loop-Memory rehearsal system specialized to briefly store speech-based information. Limited capacity • Visuospatial Sketchpad-Stores visual and spatial imagery. Can work with the phonological loop—rehearse numbers in phonological group while using visual spatial memory. Limited capacity.

8. Retaining Information in Working Memory • Rehearsal can increase duration • Maintenance rehearsal • Elaborative rehearsal • Chunking • Forgetting • Interference • Decay

9. Short Term Very fast input Limited capacity 5–20 seconds duration Contains words, images, ideas, sentences Immediate retrieval Comparison of Short- & Long Term Memory Long Term Relatively slow input Practically unlimited capacity Practically unlimited duration Contains networks, schemata Retrieval depends on connections

10. Long-Term Memory: The Goal of Teaching • Hold information that is well learned • Capacity: Unlimited • Duration: Can remain in long-term memory indefinitely • Access can be difficult • Dual Coding Theory (Alan Paivio): Information is stored as either visual images or verbal units, or both • Information coded both ways may be easier to learn See Figure 19.1, p. 242 • Declarative-Explicit-Long term memories. Conscious recollection of information—specific facts, events that can be verbally communicated. Deliberate recall. • Procedural-Implicit-Knowledge that we are not conscious of recalling in the form of specific events. Knowledge in the form of skills and cognitive operations.

11. Types of Memory Yesterday’s golf outing Episodic Semantic The concept airplane How to give a presentation Procedural

12. Explicit Memories Semantic Memory-memory for meaning Stored as propositions, schemas and images • Propositions & propositional networks • proposition-smallest unit of information that can be judged • propositional network-interconnected bits if information • Bits of information can trigger or activate recall of another “proposition” • Images are representations based on perceptions—perception of the appearance of information • Schema are abstract knowledge structures • organize a vast amount of information • patterns or guides for understanding an event, concept, or a skill • Story grammar • Event schema/script • Episodic memory is memory for information tied to a particular place and time, especially events in one'

13. Implicit Memories -- Procedural • Knowledge in the form of skills and cognitive operations • Mental and motor skills are stored as procedural knowledge • musician’s ability to play a song • athletes to perform in an event • driving a car • Knowledge that we are not conscious of recalling, but given the correct conditions, an action is triggered LTM Storage Strategies • Elaboration-the addition of meaning to new information through its connection with already existing information • Organization-material that is well organized is easier to learn and to remember than bits of information • Context-aspects of physical and emotional content are learned along with other information • Serial Position Effect-recall is better for items at the beginning and end of a list

14. Retrieval & ForgettingLevels of Processing Theories-the more completely information is processed, the better are the chances of retrieving the information later. • Cues • Spread of activation-retrieving of information based on relatedness to other information • Reconstruction • Decay • Interference • See Guidelines, Woolfolk p. 249

15. Metacognitive Knowledge • Awareness of your own thinking processes • Knowing what you know (declarative knowledge) • Knowing how to use what you know (procedural knowledge) • Knowing when and why to use what you know (conditional knowledge) • Planning • Monitoring • Evaluation Differences in Metacognition and Memory • Individual Differences in Metacognition • due to development • age/maturation • biological differences • variations in learning experiences

16. Learning Declarative Knowledge Mnemonics • Loci method • Peg type: keyword, peg word, acronyms • Chaining • Key Word Method • Rote Memorization • Making it meaningful • Mnemonics • Rote memorization • Serial position effect • Part learning • Distributed practice • Massed practice Making It Meaningful • Relating to previous knowledge • Relating to students’ experiences • Clarifying unfamiliar terms • Give examples, illustrations, analogies from students’ view • Use humor, emotion, novelty

17. Procedural & Conditional Knowledge • Automated basic skills • Cognitive stage- rely on declarative knowledge and general problem-solving strategies • Associative stage- individual steps of a procedure are combined into larger units • Autonomous stage- whole procedure can be accomplished without much attention • Prerequisite knowledge • Practice with feedback-teachers can help students become experts through constructive feedback and practice • Domain-specific strategies- consciously applied skills to reach goals in a particular subject, task or problem area