arabic as a minority language in western and eastern europe

1. Arabic as a Minority Language in Western and Eastern Europe Brian Hardiman

2. Overview Basic information about Arabic and its speakers in Europe Western Europe France Eastern Europe Turkey Compare W and E Europe Future Outlook

3. Arabic Semitic Language Family Unique minority situation Arabic is a majority language in the Middle East Arabic speaking people want integration and assimilation, yet preservation and empowerment of their culture. Spoken Arabic has many different dialects stemming from country of origin – “Colloquial Arabic” However, the language in its literary form is constant – Modern Standard Arabic Arabic encompasses more than just words, it is an entire culture

4. Western Europe Relatively recent migration into Europe (post WWII) About 10 million Arabic speakers throughout Western Europe Many are concentrated in 3 major regions France Germany Italy

5. Western Europe Social, economic, and demographic developments in Western Europe during the post-war years resulted in a high number of Arab speaking immigrants. Arab communities are essentially the result of the labor migrations of the 1960’s and 1970’s. Interaction between these Arab communities is often strained because of the history between Islam and the West – on both sides.

6. Case Study France Home to the largest Arabic speaking population in W Europe ~ 6 Million Large concentration in Paris 10% of French citizens are from North/West Africa Islam has become the second largest religion in France This is due, in part, to the fact that France was a colonial power in North Africa and Algeria This fact makes it hard for some European’s to accept a once dominated people that should now be treated as an equal citizen.

7. France Post-War, France formulated an immigration policy with two foci: Economic Demographic Passed a regulation that fixed the conditions of entry and stay of foreign workers in France. Algerians were free to enter as long as their country was a colony

8. France Arabs from North Africa moved into France seeking jobs the native Frenchmen would not do. As a result, they are looked down upon: Recent riots have taken place because immigrants feel as though they are second-class citizens, unwanted by society and government French citizens see them as belonging either to Arab World or North Africa, but not Europe

9. France Nationality for Arabs in France becomes a question. French (Christian/Secular) vs. Arab (Islamic) Hence, for some to call themselves a French Arab, creates an identity problem. “Here, if anywhere, the children need Muslim culture. Besides, I have decided to return permanently to Turkey for that reason. Here, the culture is totally contrary to Islam. The schools seem to be like brothels.” Thirty seven year old Turkish woman who lived in France for ten years. (Gerholm, 113)

10. France “Others are of the opinion that all teaching, even of mathematics and natural sciences, should be Islamic in content in order to preserve the cultural authenticity of the children.” (Gerholm, 113)

11. France In the 90’s Khaled Kilkal, a French citizen with an Algerian background, became the chief suspect in a terrorist bombing campaign. Frightened native French citizens Wondered, how could a person who were born, raised, and educated in France do such a thing? As a result of this, skepticism and rejection of the Arab language and culture grew

12. France Leaders of Arab communities in France warning that social and racial tensions are in danger of creating a “social and political atom bomb” Cultural tensions, especially after 9/11 and recent terrorist attacks, are very high, and many people are suspicious of Arab speakers. France's ban on religious symbols and apparel in public schools took effect Sept. 2, 2004 France seems to be the most extreme case of these tensions in Western Europe.

13. France Recent Incidents in France Not religious in nature Riots Fall 2005 – Teens predominantly of Arab origins burn about 9,000 vehicles in protest over economic situation. Wall Street Journal - “A nationwide show of disdain for French authority from youths, including the children of Arabs and black Africans angered by high unemployment, poor housing and discrimination."

14. Turkey For centuries, Turks and Arabs were members of the same state: Ottoman Empire Yet there is still little understanding between the two groups Turkey is in the unique position of being in between Europe and the Middle East “The Middle East’s bridge to Europe”

15. Turkey Democratic, secular, constitutional republic established in 1923 Currently in accession negotiations with the EU In 1929, the Turkish language was switched from Arabic script to Latin This was a conscious switch away from the Islamic world toward the West Writing in the Arabic scripts was also outlawed during this time as Turkish switched to Latin characters.

16. Turkey Purification of the Turkish language became a national cause. Turkish dictionaries dropped Arabic words and new words were coined in Turkish Mustafa Kemal Ataturk came up with Sun – Language Theory Stated Turkish was the “mother of all tongues” Every foreign word was originally Turkish If Turkish took a loan-word from any other language, it would be looked upon as originally Turkish and thus not violating the purity of the language.

17. Turkey Turkey is in the position where they have focused their efforts on westernizing The Arab world sees this move as turning their back on its culture and rejecting Islamic heritage. Strict Muslim Arabs within Turkey feel a contempt for their Muslim Turkish counterparts.

18. Turkey 99.8% of Turkey is Muslim Arabic is the liturgical language of Islam Many Turkish Muslims know some prayers in Arabic, but are often encouraged to learn them in their own tongue. This looks to Arabic speaking Muslims as deviation from Islamic law.

19. Turkey Attitudes of Turkish people towards their Middle Eastern neighbors are relatively negative. There is much tension between the two groups for religious reasons. Turks are looked upon as apostates by Arabs Arabs are seen as inferior, vengeful, and untrustworthy Arabic has a terrible reputation in Turkey. For many people, it is a dangerous language that represents Islamism & Anti-Secularism.

20. Turkey Today, there is about 400,000 Arabic speakers in Turkey Many of these people are bilingual in Turkish Arabic is simply not a useful language for everyday life – with an exception for prayer

21. E vs. W Europe Between France and Turkey, there is not much difference between the overall view of the Arabic language and its speakers However, France is an extreme case in W Europe In the United Kingdom, Arabic and Muslim culture is much more accepted. Londonistan - (56% of Arab speakers live in London) Muslims in UK are seen as “settlers” rather than “immigrants” Young Muslims in UK have rejected their parent’s Islam in search for a more universalist Islam

22. What’s Next? EU acceptance of Arabic Language? EU acceptance of Turkey? There MUST be reform and change in France regarding economic situation of Arabs/North Africans Immediately after the riots, France only tightened controls on immigration Must master the French language within 10 years and integrate into society

23. Future Outlook Setback of 9/11 and other subsequent terrorist attacks in Europe Cultural divide is vast However, acceptance of the Arab culture and language is slowly improving (but not in France). Arabic in Turkey only has the EU to cling to Personal views on Arabic in Turkey will likely not change, especially as Turkey continues to Westernize

24. Bibliography Anwar, Muhammad, and Roger Garaudy. Social and Cultural Perspectives on Muslims in Western Europe. Birmingham, United Kingdom: The Center for the Study of Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations, 1984. Gerholm, Thomas, and Yngve Georg Lithman, eds. The New Islamic Presence in Western Europe. London and New York: Mansell Limited, 1988. Goody, Jack. Islam in Europe. Cambridge , United Kingdom: Polity P, 2004. Hunter, Shireen T., and Huma Malik, eds. Islam in Europe and the United States: a Comparative Perspective. Washington, D.C.: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 2002. Kayali, Hasan. Arabs and Young Turks: Ottomanism, Arabism, and Islamism in the Ottoman Empire. Los Angeles: U of California P, 1997.

25. Bibliography Nourallah, Riad. Beyond the Arab Disease: New Perspectives in Politics and Culture. London and New York: Routledge, 2006. Robins, Philip. Turkey and the Middle East. New York: Council on Foreign Relations P, 1991. Shadid, W.A.R, and P.S. Von Koningsveld, eds. Muslims on the Margin: Political Responses to the Presence of Islam in Western Europe. Kampen, the Netherlands: Kok Pharos House, 1996. Shadid, W.A.R., and P.S. Von Koningsveld, eds. Political Participation and Identities of Muslims in Non-Muslim States. Kampen, the Netherlands: Kok Pharos House, 1996. Viorst, Milton. Sandcastles: The Arabs in Search of the Modern World. New York, Alfred A. Knopf, Inc, 1994.