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. Tier 1 = Primary Prevention:School-/Classroom-Wide Systems for All Students,Staff,
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1. Effective Classroom Practice Activity Sequence & Offering Choice MO SW-PBS
3.
4. Effective Classroom Practices Classroom:
Expectations & Rules
Procedures & Routines
Continuum of strategies to acknowledge appropriate behaviors
Continuum of strategies to respond to inappropriate behavior
Active supervision
Multiple opportunities to respond
Activity sequence & Offering choice
Academic success & Task difficulty When we talk about building an effective classroom system these are the features we want in place in all classrooms.
Each of these are research based practices.
This particular list came from a synthesis of work from many researchers including Brandi Simonson at the University of Connecticut and Lee Kern and Nathan Clemens from Lehigh University.
More detailed information regarding studies conducted for each of these practices can be found in a 2008 article titled Evidence Based Practices in Classroom Management from the journal Education and Treatment of Children. And in a 2007 article titled Antecedent Strategies to Promote Appropriate Classroom Behavior from the journal, Psychology in the Schools.
To underscore the value of classroom systems, let me show you data from an elementary school here in Missouri.
When we talk about building an effective classroom system these are the features we want in place in all classrooms.
Each of these are research based practices.
This particular list came from a synthesis of work from many researchers including Brandi Simonson at the University of Connecticut and Lee Kern and Nathan Clemens from Lehigh University.
More detailed information regarding studies conducted for each of these practices can be found in a 2008 article titled Evidence Based Practices in Classroom Management from the journal Education and Treatment of Children. And in a 2007 article titled Antecedent Strategies to Promote Appropriate Classroom Behavior from the journal, Psychology in the Schools.
To underscore the value of classroom systems, let me show you data from an elementary school here in Missouri.
5. This school has implemented PBS for a number of years. During their first and second years of work they focused on identifying, teaching and acknowledging schoolwide and non-classroom expectations and rules.
With these supports in place they saw reductions in the overall number of office referrals. This school has implemented PBS for a number of years. During their first and second years of work they focused on identifying, teaching and acknowledging schoolwide and non-classroom expectations and rules.
With these supports in place they saw reductions in the overall number of office referrals.
6. Then during the 2007-08 school year they continued what they were doing in terms of school-wide and non-classroom settings, but also added a specific focus on classroom system practices and this is what happened
They decreased their total number of office referrals from 270 to fewer than 150.
By developing an effective instructional and behavior management system in each classroom, this school decreased referrals by almost 46%.
Focusing on effective classroom practices dramatically reduced the incidents of problem behavior for this school.
This is why we are talking about developing a classroom system which includes these essential features.
Then during the 2007-08 school year they continued what they were doing in terms of school-wide and non-classroom settings, but also added a specific focus on classroom system practices and this is what happened
They decreased their total number of office referrals from 270 to fewer than 150.
By developing an effective instructional and behavior management system in each classroom, this school decreased referrals by almost 46%.
Focusing on effective classroom practices dramatically reduced the incidents of problem behavior for this school.
This is why we are talking about developing a classroom system which includes these essential features.
7. Activity Sequence Task Interspersal
Behavioral Momentum The focus of this mini-module is use of two effective classroom strategies:
activity sequencing and offering choice.
First we will look at the activity sequencing strategy. Then we will talk about offering choice.The focus of this mini-module is use of two effective classroom strategies:
activity sequencing and offering choice.
First we will look at the activity sequencing strategy. Then we will talk about offering choice.
8. What is Activity Sequencing?
Thinking about and altering the manner in which instructional tasks, activities or requests are ordered in such a way that promotes learning and encourages appropriate behavior.
(Kern & Clemens, 2007) Have you ever encountered a student who may get started with an academic task or activity, but then quits or becomes noncompliant when they run into difficulty?
When teachers consider the sequence of activities they provide, students are more likely to be successful and keep on task. (Colvin, 2009, pp. 52-53)
Activity sequencing means thinking about and altering the manner in which learning tasks, activities or requests are ordered (Kern & Clemens, 2007).Have you ever encountered a student who may get started with an academic task or activity, but then quits or becomes noncompliant when they run into difficulty?
When teachers consider the sequence of activities they provide, students are more likely to be successful and keep on task. (Colvin, 2009, pp. 52-53)
Activity sequencing means thinking about and altering the manner in which learning tasks, activities or requests are ordered (Kern & Clemens, 2007).
9. Why Consider Activity Sequence? Increases task performance
Decreases disruptive behavior
Improves student perception of and preference for assignments they consider difficult
(Kern & Clemens, 2007)
Considering how learning tasks and activities are ordered may lead to
increases in performance,
decreases in problem behavior and
improves student perceptions of and feelings about an assignment.
Considering how learning tasks and activities are ordered may lead to
increases in performance,
decreases in problem behavior and
improves student perceptions of and feelings about an assignment.
10. Why Consider Activity Sequence? For some students presenting difficult tasks back-to-back often sets the occasion for frustration, failure and problem behavior. Varying the sequence of tasks may not be necessary for average students, but can be very important for students who are at-risk for learning or behavior concerns
(Darch & Kameenui, 2004).
Consider this (read slide)Consider this (read slide)
11. Strategies for Effective Activity Sequencing
Intermingle easy/brief problems among longer or more difficult tasks (task interspersal)
(Kern & Clemens, 2007) Research has shown two ways to order activities that encourage learning and appropriate behavior (Kern & Clemens, 2007).
First, interspersing easier tasks with more difficult ones is likely to increase a students success and help keep them on task and engaged.
Research has shown two ways to order activities that encourage learning and appropriate behavior (Kern & Clemens, 2007).
First, interspersing easier tasks with more difficult ones is likely to increase a students success and help keep them on task and engaged.
12. Research for Activity Sequencing Task Interspersal Interspersing difficult tasks with easier problems
Cates and Skinner (2000) examined assignment perception among remedial math students in
grades 9-12.
Students perceived the interspersed assignments as
taking less time to complete,
being less difficult and
requiring less effort Consider the following research examples for use of task interspersal
Results from a study conducted with remedial math students in grades 9-12 showed assignments that included easier problems interspersed with more difficult calculations were rated more favorably.
Students perceived the interspersed assignments as
taking less time to complete,
being less difficult and
requiring less effort
even though the assignment actually included more problems.
(Cates and Skinner, 2000; Kern and Clemens, 2007)
Consider the following research examples for use of task interspersal
Results from a study conducted with remedial math students in grades 9-12 showed assignments that included easier problems interspersed with more difficult calculations were rated more favorably.
Students perceived the interspersed assignments as
taking less time to complete,
being less difficult and
requiring less effort
even though the assignment actually included more problems.
(Cates and Skinner, 2000; Kern and Clemens, 2007)
13. Strategies for Effective Activity Sequencing
Deliver 3 to 4 simple requests prior to a difficult assignment (behavioral momentum)
(Kern & Clemens, 2007) Second, a similar technique of delivering 3 or 4 simple requests before a more difficult one has been shown to increase compliance and decrease problem behavior.
This technique is sometimes referred to as behavioral momentum.
The theory behind the strategy is once a student is cooperating and engaged in one task (the simple requests), there is more chance of the student cooperating and engaging in the task that immediately follows (the more difficult activity)
(Colvin, p.46, 2009)
Second, a similar technique of delivering 3 or 4 simple requests before a more difficult one has been shown to increase compliance and decrease problem behavior.
This technique is sometimes referred to as behavioral momentum.
The theory behind the strategy is once a student is cooperating and engaged in one task (the simple requests), there is more chance of the student cooperating and engaging in the task that immediately follows (the more difficult activity)
(Colvin, p.46, 2009)
14. Research for Activity Sequencing Behavioral Momentum Deliver simple requests before a more
difficult task
Improved behavior among 2nd graders during transition times when teacher provided a series of simple requests prior to the transition directions (Ardoin, Martens & Wolfe, 1999).
Increased writing performance among 10-11 year olds when teacher asked them to write 3 simple words each time they stopped writing (Lee & Laspe, 2003). Related to behavioral momentum, a study from 1999 showed improved behavior among second grade students during a difficult transition time when the teacher provided a series of 5 simple requests before giving directions for the transition (Ardoin, Martens & Wolf, 1999).
And a study conducted in 2003 showed the journal writing and task persistence of 10-11 year old students who had history of non-compliance and limited work completion was improved by having the students write a series of 3 easy words each time they stopped writing. This simple strategy increased student writing over time (Kern & Clemens, 2007).
Each of the activity sequencing techniques- task interspersal or behavioral momentum- can be applied to individual students as needed or incorporated into lessons as a classwide strategy.
Related to behavioral momentum, a study from 1999 showed improved behavior among second grade students during a difficult transition time when the teacher provided a series of 5 simple requests before giving directions for the transition (Ardoin, Martens & Wolf, 1999).
And a study conducted in 2003 showed the journal writing and task persistence of 10-11 year old students who had history of non-compliance and limited work completion was improved by having the students write a series of 3 easy words each time they stopped writing. This simple strategy increased student writing over time (Kern & Clemens, 2007).
Each of the activity sequencing techniques- task interspersal or behavioral momentum- can be applied to individual students as needed or incorporated into lessons as a classwide strategy.
15. Activity Sequencing Examples With a partner read two student examples
(Use Activity Sequencing Examples Handout)
Next, identify the activity sequencing strategy used in each example
task interspersal or
behavioral momentum HO1: Activity Sequencing Examples Thinking about the way in which learning activities are sequenced is a fairly simple strategy to implement.
Participant Activity 1:
Find the Handout titled: Effective Classroom Practice: Activity Sequencing Examples
With a partner read the two student examples. Then try to determine which type of sequencing was used, task interspersal or behavioral momentum.
Note: Give participants 3- 5 minutes to read and talk about the examples with a partner. After participants look at the examples lead the following discussion.
Ask: What type of activity sequencning did you find in the first example?
(behavioral momentum)
Ask: What types of easier tasks did the teacher give before asking the student to demonstrate the more difficult task of reading independently?
(follow along with the reading, read with teacher, read every other sentence)
Ask: What type of activity sequencing did you find in the second example?
(task interspersal)
Ask: Why do you think this strategy was successful for Emily?
(allows student to experience success and access high rates of teacher feedback, which increases her confidence and persistence for the more difficult task)
Thinking about the way in which learning activities are sequenced is a fairly simple strategy to implement.
Participant Activity 1:
Find the Handout titled: Effective Classroom Practice: Activity Sequencing Examples
With a partner read the two student examples. Then try to determine which type of sequencing was used, task interspersal or behavioral momentum.
Note: Give participants 3- 5 minutes to read and talk about the examples with a partner. After participants look at the examples lead the following discussion.
Ask: What type of activity sequencning did you find in the first example?
(behavioral momentum)
Ask: What types of easier tasks did the teacher give before asking the student to demonstrate the more difficult task of reading independently?
(follow along with the reading, read with teacher, read every other sentence)
Ask: What type of activity sequencing did you find in the second example?
(task interspersal)
Ask: Why do you think this strategy was successful for Emily?
(allows student to experience success and access high rates of teacher feedback, which increases her confidence and persistence for the more difficult task)
16. Using Sequence in Your Classroom HO2: Using Sequence in Your Classroom Participant Activity 2 (Optional; 5- 8 min)
Now, consider how you might incorporate task interspersal or behavioral momentum in your environment.
First, list some of the activities or instructional tasks you ask students to complete. Then with a partner, discuss and identify ways you could reorganize the sequence of those tasks to better support learning and appropriate behavior.
Possible Answers:
White out some of the numbers on a multi-digit math worksheet.
Add a few fun, easy words or most frequently misspelled words to a spelling list.
Add fun, easy words to a vocabulary list or assignment.Participant Activity 2 (Optional; 5- 8 min)
Now, consider how you might incorporate task interspersal or behavioral momentum in your environment.
First, list some of the activities or instructional tasks you ask students to complete. Then with a partner, discuss and identify ways you could reorganize the sequence of those tasks to better support learning and appropriate behavior.
Possible Answers:
White out some of the numbers on a multi-digit math worksheet.
Add a few fun, easy words or most frequently misspelled words to a spelling list.
Add fun, easy words to a vocabulary list or assignment.
17. Offering Choice Type, Order, Materials,
Whom, Place &Time In addition to thinking about the sequencing of tasks, a similar and also effective strategy is allowing students to make choices about their learning activities.In addition to thinking about the sequencing of tasks, a similar and also effective strategy is allowing students to make choices about their learning activities.
18. Why Provide Choice? Providing opportunities for students to make choices has been demonstrated to be an effective intervention in preventing problem behavior and increasing engagement
(Kern and Clemens, 2007, p. 70) Providing students with the opportunity to make choices may not sound like an instructional practice. However, research indicates offering choices, especially during academic tasks, not only increases student engagement and reduces disruptive behavior, but can also improve response accuracy
(Scheuermann & Hall, 2008, p. 294).
Providing students with the opportunity to make choices may not sound like an instructional practice. However, research indicates offering choices, especially during academic tasks, not only increases student engagement and reduces disruptive behavior, but can also improve response accuracy
(Scheuermann & Hall, 2008, p. 294).
19. Why Provide Choice? Feasible and easy intervention to implement
Effective for students in general or special education
Does not require significant modification to existing instruction
(Kern and State, 2009) In addition, teachers consider offering choice a feasible and easy intervention to implement (Morgan, 2006)
Offering choice can be effective for students in general or special education and does not require significant modification to existing structure or instruction
(Powell & Nelson, 1997)
An important understanding though the content you teach is NOT negotiable, but the type of assignment or ways of completing it can be negotiated and is likely to enhance student participation!
In addition, teachers consider offering choice a feasible and easy intervention to implement (Morgan, 2006)
Offering choice can be effective for students in general or special education and does not require significant modification to existing structure or instruction
(Powell & Nelson, 1997)
An important understanding though the content you teach is NOT negotiable, but the type of assignment or ways of completing it can be negotiated and is likely to enhance student participation!
20. Why Provide Choice? Teach students to become self-determined individuals
Enables them to better control their environment
Can lead to more predictable student-teacher interactions
Allows opportunity for more frequent positive attention and feedback from teachers
May foster improvements in student teacher relationships
(Jolivette, Wehby, Canale & Massey, 2001; Kern and State, 2009, p. 10)
(Kern and State, 2009, p. 3) In addition to preventing problem behavior, providing opportunities for choice helps
Teach students to become self-determined individuals
Enables them to better control their environment
Can lead to more predictable student-teacher interactions
Allows opportunity for more frequent positive attention and feedback from teachers
and
May foster improvements in student teacher relationships
Many have argued that such opportunities are essential for providing the experiences necessary to guide an individuals later performance when they encounter important life choices.
Furthermore, the opportunity for choice making is one dimension of a good quality of life
(Kern and State, 2009, p. 3)In addition to preventing problem behavior, providing opportunities for choice helps
Teach students to become self-determined individuals
Enables them to better control their environment
Can lead to more predictable student-teacher interactions
Allows opportunity for more frequent positive attention and feedback from teachers
and
May foster improvements in student teacher relationships
Many have argued that such opportunities are essential for providing the experiences necessary to guide an individuals later performance when they encounter important life choices.
Furthermore, the opportunity for choice making is one dimension of a good quality of life
(Kern and State, 2009, p. 3)
21. Strategies for Offering Choice Examples of classwide choice:
Type of task or activity
Order or sequence of tasks
Kinds of materials that will be used
Whom to work with
Place to work
Choice of how to use time This is a list of the kinds of choices teachers can easily give to students.
Teachers can allow choice for
The type of activity or task to be completed
The order in which tasks will be completed
The kinds of materials students will use to complete an assignment
Who students will work with
Place students will work and
Choices for how to use time before, during or after an activity or assignment
Once some initial thought has been given for the range of opportunities a teacher will allow and provide, a standard set of choices can be offered to students during many different instructional periods.
For example, some teachers may regularly allow students the choice to work with a partner, with a teacher or to complete an assignment independently.
Another example could be allowing students to work at their desk, on the floor, in the hall or at a table.
This is a list of the kinds of choices teachers can easily give to students.
Teachers can allow choice for
The type of activity or task to be completed
The order in which tasks will be completed
The kinds of materials students will use to complete an assignment
Who students will work with
Place students will work and
Choices for how to use time before, during or after an activity or assignment
Once some initial thought has been given for the range of opportunities a teacher will allow and provide, a standard set of choices can be offered to students during many different instructional periods.
For example, some teachers may regularly allow students the choice to work with a partner, with a teacher or to complete an assignment independently.
Another example could be allowing students to work at their desk, on the floor, in the hall or at a table.
22. Offering Choice Example With a partner read the example. (Use Offering Choice Example Handout)
Next, identify the types of choices offered to students in the example.
Be prepared to share your answers with the large group. HO3: Offering Choice Example Lets look at an example
Participant Activity 3:
Find the Handout titled: Effective Classroom Practice: Offering Choice Example
This is an example of how one teacher included choice making opportunities for students within a science lesson. (Mr. Franklins recycling lesson example)
With a partner read the example and identify ways this teacher provided choices for his students. After a few minutes, be prepared to share your responses.
Give participants 5-7 minutes to read and discuss the example. Lets look at an example
Participant Activity 3:
Find the Handout titled: Effective Classroom Practice: Offering Choice Example
This is an example of how one teacher included choice making opportunities for students within a science lesson. (Mr. Franklins recycling lesson example)
With a partner read the example and identify ways this teacher provided choices for his students. After a few minutes, be prepared to share your responses.
Give participants 5-7 minutes to read and discuss the example.
23. Steps for Using Choice in the Classroom Create a menu of choices you would be willing to provide to students.
Look through your choice menu before planning each lesson.
Decide what types of choice are appropriate for the lesson and where they fit best in the lesson.
Provide choices as planned while teaching the lesson.
Solicit student feedback and input.
(Kern and State, 2009, p. 5) There are many ways a teacher can provide choice. Nearly every opportunity in which teachers make decisions about how, when or where an activity will take place can be translated into a student choice (Kern and State, 2009, p. 4).
The steps for incorporating opportunities for choice making are simple.
First, we think about, identify and list each type of choice we are wiling to offer.
Then as we plan each lesson, we can refer to our list of possible choices.
Next, we determine which choices are appropriate and convenient for the type of lesson being taught.
Then, we provide a range of choice for students to select from during each lesson.
Finally, offering students an opportunity to give feedback about their choices and allowing them to provide input about future choices is also helpful.
There are many ways a teacher can provide choice. Nearly every opportunity in which teachers make decisions about how, when or where an activity will take place can be translated into a student choice (Kern and State, 2009, p. 4).
The steps for incorporating opportunities for choice making are simple.
First, we think about, identify and list each type of choice we are wiling to offer.
Then as we plan each lesson, we can refer to our list of possible choices.
Next, we determine which choices are appropriate and convenient for the type of lesson being taught.
Then, we provide a range of choice for students to select from during each lesson.
Finally, offering students an opportunity to give feedback about their choices and allowing them to provide input about future choices is also helpful.
24. Create a Menu of Choice Options HO4: A Menu of Choice Options Participant Activity 4:
Now you will have an opportunity to think about the kinds of choices you might be willing to offer students in your classroom.
As you think about ways in which you might be able to offer choice it is important to rememberAllowing students to make choices does not change the amount of work students are expected to complete and does not change the essential components of the task. (Scheuermann & Hall, 2008, p.295)
Instead, offering choices simply gives students some input and decision making about how they would like to accomplish the assignment youve given.
Find the Handout titled: Effective Classroom Practice: A Menu of Choice Options
With a partner use 10 minutes to brainstorm a list of choice options. Consider each of the categories weve discussed (type of task, order of tasks, materials, whom to work with, place to work, and choice of how to use time). On your paper write down choices you personally are willing to give. Dont worry if you and your partner each end up with a different list.
When I give the signal, find a different partner and share the ideas you have listed on your paper. If your partner has a new choice that youd be willing to offer to your students, add it to your list.
When I give the signal again you will share lists with one more partner.
Give participants time to work on their list and share responses with at least 2 different partners.
(8-10 minutes)Participant Activity 4:
Now you will have an opportunity to think about the kinds of choices you might be willing to offer students in your classroom.
As you think about ways in which you might be able to offer choice it is important to rememberAllowing students to make choices does not change the amount of work students are expected to complete and does not change the essential components of the task. (Scheuermann & Hall, 2008, p.295)
Instead, offering choices simply gives students some input and decision making about how they would like to accomplish the assignment youve given.
Find the Handout titled: Effective Classroom Practice: A Menu of Choice Options
With a partner use 10 minutes to brainstorm a list of choice options. Consider each of the categories weve discussed (type of task, order of tasks, materials, whom to work with, place to work, and choice of how to use time). On your paper write down choices you personally are willing to give. Dont worry if you and your partner each end up with a different list.
When I give the signal, find a different partner and share the ideas you have listed on your paper. If your partner has a new choice that youd be willing to offer to your students, add it to your list.
When I give the signal again you will share lists with one more partner.
Give participants time to work on their list and share responses with at least 2 different partners.
(8-10 minutes)
25. What Options Did You Think Of? HO4: Creating a Menu of Choice Options After participants have time to work and discuss with partners, lead the following discussion with the whole group.
Call on participants to share ideas they thought of for each category. If ideas were not identified for all categories some possible answers are listed below.
Possible Answers:
Type of task = written document, oral presentation, video display
Order of task = complete odd numbered problems first, then even numbered questions
Materials = type or handwritten; pencil, marker or ink;
Whom to work with = peer, teacher, partner, group, independent
Place to work = desk, floor, table, hall, library
Choice of how to use time = (several possibilities)
When to complete task = current period, next period, free period, homework
What to do after task = read quietly, use a computer, work on other assignments
How long to work before a break = 10 min, 20 problems, 2 chapters
After participants have time to work and discuss with partners, lead the following discussion with the whole group.
Call on participants to share ideas they thought of for each category. If ideas were not identified for all categories some possible answers are listed below.
Possible Answers:
Type of task = written document, oral presentation, video display
Order of task = complete odd numbered problems first, then even numbered questions
Materials = type or handwritten; pencil, marker or ink;
Whom to work with = peer, teacher, partner, group, independent
Place to work = desk, floor, table, hall, library
Choice of how to use time = (several possibilities)
When to complete task = current period, next period, free period, homework
What to do after task = read quietly, use a computer, work on other assignments
How long to work before a break = 10 min, 20 problems, 2 chapters
26. Offering Choice Remember . . .
Every lesson does not have to include all of the choices on your list, but if each lesson you teach provides at least one opportunity for choice, students are likely to benefit.
REMEMBER: When you incorporate choice, start small. Offer 1 or 2 choices. As you become more comfortable with this skill, you can expand the number and type of choice options you will incorporate into your lessons.
REMEMBER: When you incorporate choice, start small. Offer 1 or 2 choices. As you become more comfortable with this skill, you can expand the number and type of choice options you will incorporate into your lessons.
27. Effective Classroom Practice Activity Sequence
task interspersal
behavioral momentum
Offering Choice
type, order, materials
who, place and choice of time Today we have talked about two simple strategies that you can use in your classroom Activity Sequencing and Offering Choice.
Each of these is a research based practice that can improve student behavior and academic performance.
These strategies require limited effort to implement, may help students be more engaged with learning and have a more positive outlook about assignments and tasks and will particularly address the needs of at-risk learners.
Please think about how you can share this information with other faculty in your building.Today we have talked about two simple strategies that you can use in your classroom Activity Sequencing and Offering Choice.
Each of these is a research based practice that can improve student behavior and academic performance.
These strategies require limited effort to implement, may help students be more engaged with learning and have a more positive outlook about assignments and tasks and will particularly address the needs of at-risk learners.
Please think about how you can share this information with other faculty in your building.
28. References Colvin, G. (2009). Managing noncompliance and defiance in the classroom: A road map for teachers, specialists, and behavior support teams. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Darch, C. B. & Kameenui, E. J. (2004). Instructional classroom management: A proactive approach to behavior management. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Jolivette, K., Wehby, J. H., Canale, J., & Massey, N. G. (2001). Effects of choice-making opportunities on the behavior of students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 26, 131-145.
Kern, L. and Clemens, N.H. (2007). Antecedent strategies to promote appropriate classroom behavior. Psychology in the Schools, 44(1), 65-75.
Kern, L. and State, T. M. (2009). Incorporating choice and preferred activities into classwide instruction. Beyond Behavior, 18(2), 3-11.
29. References Morgan, P. L. (2006). Increasing task engagement using preference or choice-making: Some behavioral and methodological factors affecting their efficacy as classroom interventions. Remedial and Special Education, 27, 176-187.
Powell, S. & Nelson, B. (1997). Effects of choosing academic assignments on a student with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 30, 181-183.
Scheuermann, B. K. and Hall, J. A. (2008). Positive behavioral supports for the classroom. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.
