Question of the Day: Would pictures or words be easier to encode into memory?

1. Visual Communications Question of the Day:Would pictures or words be easier to encode into memory?

2. Visual Communications and PersuasionGeneral Assumptions: Language is processed in a linear, analytic wayVisuals are processed in a spatial, syncretic way

3. Central Peripheral Route RouteThinking Systematic HeuristicInfluence Arguments Cues Magnitude Equal EqualPersistence Longer ShorterResistance Stronger Weaker The short term persuasive impact of visual information might be increased through repetition (ex: advertising).

4. Repetition over time would move the information of product attributes from short-term memory to long-term memory. Ad from http://www.adbusters.org/spoofads/ Visual Persuasion

5. Emotional arousal and mood are found to affect long term memory.(ex: flashbulb memories)

6. Cueing:Shortcuts to conveying meaning, calling to mind past experiencesor teaching associations(Example: Leading Lines)

7. "the communication pattern that preceded a particular desired behavior should, upon its repetition, elicit the behavior again: the same arguments should touch the same responsive chord." (Burgoon, 1981)

8. Agenda-Setting assumes: -mass media teaches people to about the world-controls access to information-structures the public’s agenda by making information covered seem important

9. Applying agenda setting to advertising: products that are advertised constantly seem popular (social proof, bandwagon) This is known as “status conferral”

10. Advertising focuses the attention of consumers on what values/attributes or products/brands to consider when formulating attitudes and arriving at purchase decisions (Sutherland and Galloway, 1981) (Example: HMO’s)

11. Krugman (1965) suggests that ". . . persuasion. . . i.e. overcoming a resistant attitude. . . " is a nonfactor when evaluating the impact of advertising on the purchase behaviors of consumers. Instead, advertising leads to an “overlearning” effect, where recall of product attributes are practically conditioned into consumers.j;lkn;lnnkj

12. Gruber (1969), found “top-of-mind” brand awareness parallels the amount of consumption of a specific brand in the marketplace.

13. Axelrod (1968) found top-of-brand awareness testing provides a "... sensitive and stable predictor of purchase..." behavior

14. ‘ Image Vividness -Increases attention and retention Use of vivid, saturated colors, shocking photos. Image Salience -Positions main object near less interesting objects, so it stands out by contrast.

15. Single-Channelvs.Multi-ChannelEffectIncreased distraction leads to increased heuristic/peripheralprocessing.

16. CLARCCS Cues (Robert Cialdini, 1980) Identifies 7 heuristics (peripheral route) that impact the persuasion process.

17. Comparison Comparing your behavior to that of others, and adopting the group norms. Learning behaviors and internalizing reasons why you participate in such behaviors Examples: “Seeding the tip jar” “Candid Camera Elevator”

18. Liking Doing what someone asks because you like them, even if they take advantage of you. Works best if you think the person likes you. Works better with attractive people, but not if they have abrasive (dislikable) personalities (Example: Sherman Cloutier)

19. Authority Complying with people because they hold positions of authority. Examples: Milgram Experiments Zimbardo Experiments

20. Reciprocity Based on the societies’ norm that you are obliged to give something back to someone when they give you something. Examples: Mailed dollar bills

21. Commitment/Consistency Once you make a public stand to advocate a position or support a cause, you are likely to maintain yoursupport in the future. Works because of our need to be consistent, and maintain consonance lives. Examples: “Foot-in-the-Door” “Bait and Switch”

22. Scarcity Works on our belief that rare is good, we covered this when discussing the “false uniqueness bias” from Attribution Theories. Examples: “Limited Editions” and “Limited Time Only” specials. Counters or on-screen clock.

23. Research shows a great deal of consistency in how people make evaluations.

24. Osgood, Suci and Tannenbaum (1957) asked people to map a multitude of objects in semantic space. They claim that, any referent can be located in this semantic space, and they reported three fundamental dimensions people use for evaluations.

25. Relationship among the Three Dimensions Fast-Slow Active-Passive Most Important for Attitudes Potency Dimension Evaluative Dimension Good-bad Beneficial-Harmful Strong-Weak Assertive-Meek Activity Dimension

26. How We Learn • Operant Conditioning • Classical Conditioning • Social Learning/Modeling

27. Operant Conditioning Also called “instrumental learning” and applies to voluntary behavior, where classical conditioning applies to reflex. Known as “goal-directed” learning, in that the organism learns the behaviors leading to rewards and those leading to punishment.

28. Reinforcements can be positive or negative and increase behavior. Punishments decrease behavior. Reinforcement schedules maintain behavior. Positive incentives and negative incentives are learned in the process.

29. Classical ConditioningKey Terms • the unconditioned stimulus, or UCS • the unconditioned response, or UCR • the conditioned stimulus, or CS • the conditioned response, or CR

30. Unconditioned Stimulus 1 Unconditioned Response Meat Salivation Step 1 Conditioned Stimulus 2 Unconditioned Response Meat+Bell Salivation Conditioned Stimulus 2 Conditioned Response Bell Salivation Unconditioned Stimulus 2 Unconditioned Response Bell Salivation Step 2 Conditioned Stimulus 3 Unconditioned Response Bell+Whistle Salivation Conditioned Stimulus 3 Conditioned Response Whistle Salivation Unconditioned Stimulus 3 Unconditioned Response Whistle Salivation Conditioned Stimulus 4 Unconditioned Response Step 3 Whistle+Beep Salivation Conditioned Stimulus 4 Conditioned Response Beep Salivation Figure 2.2 The Conditioning Process for Pavlov’s Dog

31. Phases of the Conditioning Process • The CS must be paired with the UCS often enough so that the organism comes to associate the CS with the UCR. • Once the CS to CR link has been established, the CS can serve as the UCS for another CS.

32. Basic Principles • Recency • Frequency • Stimulus-generalization • Stimulus-discrimination • Extinction • Spontaneous Recovery

33. Probability that stimulus evokes desired response in organism The more recently and frequently the conditioning, the greater the probability that the stimulus will elicit the desired response.

34. Stimulus-generalization - once a stimulus is conditioned to elicit a response, similar stimuli may produce the same response. There is generalization from a particular stimulus to similar stimuli.

35. Stimulus-discrimination - when the organism responds to particular stimuli from a class of objects, and not the other similar stimuli from that class of objects. Discrimination can be trained.

36. Extinction - when a conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without reinforcement from the unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response will weaken and eventually disappear.

37. After a response appears to be extinguished, however, it may occasionally reappear in the presence of the conditioned stimulus. This reappearance of the conditioned response is known as spontaneous recovery.

38. Social Learning Theory Comes from observing others and noticing the consequences of their actions (also called “observational learning”) Involves “modeling,” such as learning to drive a car by watching others --- so that people can learn without personally going through a “trial and error” period.

40. Frame of Reference • Attitudes “filter” incoming information. • Brain organizes stimuli into meaningful patterns called Gestalts, which are influenced by our past experiences, motivation and needs. This influences perceptions of attribution, meaning, evaluations, etc. “We do not see things the way they are, we see things the way we are.” -Talmudic Saying

41. Triune Brain Theory Brain evolved in 3 stages:R-Complex or Reptilian BrainPaleocortex or “Old Mammalian” BrainNeocortex or “New Mammalian” Brain

42. Reptilian Brain -- earliest brain structures (pons, medulla,etc.). Handles autonomic tasks (breathing, etc.), sex (for species survival) and aggression (for individual’s safety). Knowledge stored here is instinctual.

43. Neocortex -- new mammalian brain structures (cortex) handle logic. Split into right and left hemispheres. The right side is associated with spatial, syncretic processing and the left handles linear, analytic processing.

44. Cognitive Resources Our definition -- everything happening in your brain at any given moment, (Memory, Attention, Mood, Analytic skills, etc.)

45. 2 Types of Knowledge:-Knowledge by Acquaintance-Knowledge by Description Associated with Symbolic vs. Spontaneous Communication

47. HEURISTIC-SYSTEMATIC MODEL (HSM) (Chaiken, 1995; Chaiken et al., 1989). Heuristics are mental shortcuts, or stereotypes, and are often used in place of systematic reasoning. The HSM has two principles at its foundation, the least effort principle and the sufficiency principle. These principles indicate how people are likely to process new information, and how resulting attitudes may affect perceptions regarding the information.

48. Elaboration Likelihood Model (Petty & Cacioppo) Considers the central (analytic) route and peripheral (syncretic/everything else) route Deals with encoding information into memory and the resulting attitudes toward the information. Asserts that people’s processing of information depends largely on their motivation to pay attention to the message. Fluctuations in levels of attention makes noticeable differences, in both people’s understanding of the information, and also in their attitudes toward the information.

49. Balance Theories

50. Premises of Balance Theories • People seek consistency in their views • The common premises • Inconsistency causes stress • Inconsistencies are fixed through attitude change.