Meeting the Needs of English Language Learners in Reading First Classrooms

1. Meeting the Needs of English Language Learners in Reading First Classrooms Michael C. McKenna University of Virginia

2. Today’s Goals • Examine the nature of the challenge • Explore theory and research • Identify effective strategies • Discuss an action plan at the district, school and classroom levels • Learn about Georgia’s ESOL program, regulations, and available resources

3. Some Common Terms and Acronyms • Limited English Proficiency (LEP) • English-Language Learner (ELL) • English as a Second Language (ESL) • English as a Foreign Language (EFL) • English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) • First (Home) Language (L1) • Second Language (L2) • Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL)

4. Some Common Terms and Acronyms

5. The Plight of ELLs

6. How many English-language learners are in Georgia schools? ?

7. ELLs in Georgia Schools From 1993 to 2004, the number of English language learners in Georgia rose from 11,877 to 59,126 – an increase of 397.8%. Source: National Center for English Language Acquisition

9. More Georgia Stats . . . Public school students in LEP Programs 4.3% Hispanic students 6.9% Asian/Pacific Islander 2.5% Source: NAEP, 2005

10. How well are ELLs learning to read?

11. Some Georgia Stats . . . Percent of Georgia Fourth Graders Reading below the “Basic” Level Source: NAEP, 2005

12. Are things better elsewhere?

13. U.S. v. Georgia at Grade 4 Percent of Hispanic Fourth Graders Reading below the “Basic” Level 56 54 Source: NAEP, 2005

14. Nevada REA Study In a Nevada REA study using PALS Composite Scores (Oral Reading in Context plus Spelling, plus Word Recognition) Percentage Below PALS Benchmark – Helman, 2005

15. Nevada REA Study – Helman, 2005

16. What types of programs are used to meet the needs of ELLs? There are several.

17. Four Types of ELL Programs – Tabors & Snow, 2002

18. Which type of ELL program is best? Let’s look at two recent research summaries.

19. Slavin and Cheung’s 2005 Meta-analysis of 17 Studies1 1Five studies reported no significant difference. Bob Slavin and friend

20. Report of the National Literacy Panel on Language-Minority Children May 2006 Developing Literacy in English-Language Learners Tim Shanahan Diane August

21. Key Findings • In available studies, children in bilingual programs did at least as well as those in English-only programs. • Overall, a moderate effect size was observed across studies, favoring bilingual instruction. • Moreover, ELLs maintained their first language to a greater extent.

22. Some Questions We Can’t Yet Answer • If we teach L1 reading and writing, how soon is it safe to transition to English? • Does teaching higher levels of L1 reading make learning to read English any quicker? • How proficient must an ELL become in spoken English before reading instruction should begin? • How long can reading instruction in English be delayed for ELLs before their reading development is jeopardized? – Tabors & Snow, 2002

23. Key Findings • Learning English is easier for ELL children aged 8- 9 with literacy skills in L1 than for children aged 5-6 without L1 literacy skills. • Immersion programs are not significantly better than programs in which L1 is used. • Bilingual children outperform monolingual children on metalinguistic tasks through age 6. • Oral proficiency in L2 is not a strong predictor of reading proficiency in L2 (due to other factors). (Garcia, 2005)

24. Key Findings • L2 teacher read-alouds tend to be ineffective. • Prior knowledge often disadvantages ELLs. • Middle and high school bilinguals tend to use the same comprehension strategies in either language. • Abler bilinguals tend to “translate” more difficult material as they read, to use cognates in confronting unfamiliar words, and to code switch between sentences (i.e., reflect on meaning in L1). (Garcia, 2005)

25. Key Findings • Close captioning can help as long as a certain threshold in L2 has been attained. • Culturally responsive teaching (through which teachers learn about the L2 culture and use this knowledge) can be helpful. (Garcia, 2005)

26. Second Language Acquisition

27. What happens to young children who are suddenly immersed in an English-speaking environment?

28. What happens to young children who are suddenly immersed in an English-speaking environment? They go through four phases.

29. Four Phases of Transition to Spoken English 1. ELLs use L1, expecting to be understood. – They are often not understood, however. 2. ELLs grow silent. – They realize L1 is not working for them. 3. ELLs begin using telegraphic and formulaic language. – Telegraphic Examples: Object names, counting – Formulaic Examples: Catch phrases (“Excuse me,” “I don’t know”) 4. ELLs gradually learn to use English productively. – They blend formulaic with telegraphic speech Examples: “I do a ice cream,” “I got a big” – Tabors & Snow, 2002

30. Two Types of Oral English Proficiency – Adapted from Drucker, 2003

31. Reading and Language Development of a Native Speaker Foundation of Spoken English Develops Reading Adds to the Foundation Reading Builds on This Foundation

32. Reading and Language Development of an ELL in an English-Only Program Foundation of Spoken English Is Limited Foundation of Spoken Home Language Is Stronger

33. Reading and Language Development of an ELL in an English-Only Program Foundation of Spoken English Is Limited Reading Must Develop together with Spoken English Foundation of Spoken Home Language Is Stronger Reading Instruction In Home Language Is Not Provided

34. Reading and Language Development of an ELL in an English-Only Program Foundation of Spoken English Is Limited Reading Must Develop together with Spoken English Reading Growth Far Slower than English-speakers Foundation of Spoken Home Language Is Stronger Reading Instruction In Home Language Is Not Provided Home Language Spoken Proficiency Declines

35. The Universal Grammar • A “hard-wired” system for oral language • Humans use this linguistic system to acquire L1 • UG has 3 components (lexicon, rules, phonology) • The UG may be modular in nature (i.e., the 3 components may work independently) Adapted from DeKeyser & Juffs (2005)

36. How L1 Affects Learning L2 • Learning a new word in L2 requires access to concepts stored in L1 (except for fluent bilinguals) • L1 phonology influences L2 pronunciation DeKeyser & Juffs (2005)

37. animal mammal “meow” c-a-t cat 4 legs /kat/ pet lion

38. animal mammal “meow” c-a-t cat gato 4 legs /kat/ pet lion

39. animal mammal “meow” c-a-t cat gato 4 legs /kat/ pet lion

40. animal mammal “meow” c-a-t cat gato 4 legs /kat/ pet lion

41. animal mammal mamífero “meow” c-a-t cat gato 4 legs /kat/ cuatro piernas pet lion animal doméstico león

42. Should ELLs be taught English directly or indirectly?

43. Explicit vs. Implicit Learning • Most research supports explicit learning, but these studies are short-term. • “Formulas” are words and chunks deliberately memorized – an example of explicit learning. • Practice is required to make explicit knowledge more accessible and automatic. • Explicit teaching can “jump start” SLA, followed by providing conditions for long-term implicit learning. DeKeyser & Juffs (2005)

44. Explicit vs. Implicit Learning • Implicit learning is more difficult for adults “because of restrictions on their implicit learning capacities” (p. 444) • L2 learners may not apply explicit knowledge • unless they know the rules well, • care to apply them, and • have the time it takes to do so (Krashen’s view) • Use of explicit knowledge can be automatized, but this takes time and practice and may even then not be generalized to other situations. DeKeyser & Juffs (2005)

45. The Competition Model • L1 plays a key role in acquiring and processing L2. • Learner will use L1 grammar to acquire L2. • Research is limited in that experimental conditions oversimplify actual language use. DeKeyser & Juffs (2005)

46. Individual Differences • Aptitude • Difficulties in defining; new measures clearly needed • But research validates the concept • Age • Puberty remains a key point in SLA • But notion of a “critical period” for SLA is still debated • Usually assumed to be 6-16 years of age • May involve a shift from implicit to explicit learning • Neuroimaging confirms that L2 is represented differently DeKeyser & Juffs (2005)

47. Individual Differences • Working Memory • Two constructs: 1. Phonological short-term memory (STM) digit span, etc. 2. Reading Span Task (RST) word recall from sentences • Studies are inconclusive, perhaps due to measures DeKeyser & Juffs (2005)

48. The Input Hypothesis The only necessary and sufficient condition for SLA is comprehensible input. Learners at stage i will move to i + 1 if and when they understand input containing i + 1. Steven Krashen (1982, 1985) But studies of speaking and writing cast doubt on the input hypothesis. (Swain, 2005)

49. The Output Hypothesis Producing L2 in writing and/or speaking is essential to learning it. Last few decades have seen a shift for output as product to output as process. (See p. 480.) Three possible roles for output in L2 learning: 1. Noticing/Triggering Function 2. Hypothesis Testing Function 3. Metalinguistic (Reflective) Function (Swain, 2005)

50. Noticing/Triggering Function “the activity of producing the target language may prompt second language learners to recognize consciously some of their linguistic problems” (p. 474, original emphasis) The student may “notice the gap” in their proficiency and try to fill it. (Swain, 2005)