Chapter 22 The Struggle Continues, 1965-1980

1. Chapter 22 The Struggle Continues,1965-1980

2. Section 1 • Racial Integration

3. An NAACP poster features images of an integrated American society.

4. I. The Fading Dream of Racial Integration White Backlash - Increasing white resistance to civil rights California: bill to repeal all laws prohibiting discrimination in sale or renting of houses, died in senate White opposition to integration helped Ronald Reagan win election for governor in California. George Wallace – Alabama governor , outspoken opponent of racial integration

5. A Diverse Array of Leadership Styles • Elijah Muhammad (1897–1975), Martin Luther King Jr., (1929–1968), and Malcolm X (1925–1965) represented a diverse array of leadership styles, ideologies, and strategies. Each offered a powerful critique of white America’s treatment of fellow black citizens. SOURCE: Courtesy of the Library of Congress

6. Black Nationalism • Disillusioned by the slow pace • Began to search for new approaches • Stokely Carmichael of SNCC • Rejected King’s moderation and nonviolence • Black theology • Critiques racism within white religious groups • Black Christian nationalism • Black feminist theology • Critiques of sexism within the black church

7. Malcolm X • Malcolm Little • Violence marred his childhood • Ten-year prison sentence • Embraced the teaching of Muhammad • Attracted attention • Did not believe in nonviolence nor advocated integration • “Revolutions are based on bloodshed.”

8. Malcolm X’s New Departure • Popularity and growing tensions • Malcolm X leaves Nation of Islam, 1964 • Muslim Mosque, Inc. • Organization for Afro-American Unity • Repudiated the Nation of Islam doctrine • “All white people are evil.” • Assassinated February 21st, 1965

9. Stokely Carmichael and Black Power • Carmicheal chairman of SNCC • End goal of interracial collaboration • SNCC fires white members • “Black Power” • Promoted black political, economic strength • Cultural Pride • Critics charged reverse racism • King supported positive aspects • Denounced negative taunts of white people

10. Stokely Carmichael (1941–1998) changed his name to Kwame Ture, a combination of the names of two major African leaders, Kwame Nkrumah and Ahmed Sekou Toure. After he settled in Guinea in 1969, he founded the All-African People’s Revolutionary Party.

11. Hubert G. Brown, • H. “Rap” Brown, Chairman of SNCC, 1966 • Militant black power • Called white people “honkies” • Police were “pigs” • “Violence” was “as American as apple pie.” • 1967 Cambridge, Maryland “black folks built America, and if America don’t come around, we’re going to burn it down” • Few hours later, fire erupted in abandoned school • Brown arrested with inciting a riot

12. The National Council of Churches • Religious leaders changed by black power • James Forman, 1969 • White churches pay $500 million in reparations • Started the withdrawal of white religious groups

13. II. The Black Panther Party • Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale, 1966 • Black nationalist ideology • Overthrowing capitalist society and ending police brutality • Eldridge Cleaver • Soul on Ice, 1968 • Black people were victims of colonization • Needed to be liberated, not integrated • Oakland police shootout, 1968 • Arrested, escaped, fled into exile • Abandoned radicalism

14. The Black Panther Party • Some members of the Black Panther Party raised funds to pay for the legal fees of those arrested and charged with various offenses, such as Bobby Seale and Ericka Huggins. The Panthers advocated a radical economic, social, and educational agenda that made it the target of a determined campaign of suppression by the police and the FBI.

15. Black Panther 10 point program • We want freedom. We want power to determine the destiny of our black community. • We want full employment for our people. • We want an end to the robbery by the capitalists of our black community. • We want decent housing fit for the shelter of human beings. • We want education for our people that exposes the true nature of this decadent American society. We want education that teaches us our true history and our role in the present-day society. • We want all black men to be exempt from military service. • We want an immediate end to police brutality and murder of black people. • We want freedom for all black men held in federal, state, county and city prisons and jails. • We want all black people when brought to trial to be tried in court by a jury of their peer group or people from their black communities, as defined by the constitution of the United States. • We want land, bread, housing, education, clothing, justice and peace.

16. Police Repression and theFBI’s COINTELPRO • Violence dwarfed Panther community projects • Free breakfast and health care programs • Some of the earliest drug education programs • 1968, FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover described the Black Panthers as "the greatest threat to the internal security of the country." • FBI Counterintelligence (COINTELPRO) • Destroy black nationalist groups • Ridicule, discredit leaders, worked with local officials • Undercover agents infiltrated the Panthers • Provoked violence and criminal acts

17. Cool Down • In what ways did the civil rights movement turn into a militant movement?

18. Section 2 • The Great Society

19. III. The Inner-City Rebellions • Anger in America’s inner cities, 1965 • 29% of black households below poverty line, compared to 8% of white households • 50% of non-white families lived in substandard conditions, compared to 18% of white families • Black unemployment rate twice that of whites • Jobs moved to suburbs • High school dropout rates increased • Crime and drug use increased

20. Inner-City Violence • Watts, August 11th, 1965 • 98% percent black community • 30% of black men unemployed • Los Angeles police brutality • Newark, New Jersey, July 12th, 1967 • Highest unemployment rate among black men in the nation • Detroit, July 23rd, 1967 • Deadliest riot of fifty-nine urban rebellions in 1967 • Forty-three black people killed, mostly by National Guard

21. The Watts Neighborhood of East Los Angeles in August 1965 • The first major urban uprising of the 1960s was in the Watts neighborhood of East Los Angeles in August 1965. It lasted nearly a week and left thirty-four people dead.

22. Kerner Commission • July 29, 1967 – President Johnson establishes National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders • Final report – White racism is underlying cause of riots • “The only genuine, long-ranged solution for what has happened lies in an attack – mounted at every level -- upon the conditions that breed despair and violence. All of us know what those conditions are: ignorance, discrimination, slums, poverty, disease, not enough jobs. We should attack these condition – not because we are frightened by conflict, but because we are fired by conscience. We should attack them because there is simply no other way to achieve a decent and orderly society in America.”

23. IV. Difficulties in Creating the Great Society • Great Society – Johnsons 1964 campaign promise • War on poverty • Poor blacks aid in design and implementation • Community action programs • Local politicians, felt threatened by empowerment • Critical of handouts and rewards for lawlessness and laziness • Raised expectations of black people • Feelings of betrayal • Frustrated by white backlash

24. V. Johnson and the War in Vietnam • Government spending • Domestic programs $44 billion • War on Poverty $10 billion • Vietnam $144 billion • Gulf of Tonkin Resolutions, 1964 • Escalation • 385,000 troops, 1966 • 500,000 troops, 1968

25. Black Americans in Vietnam • Ten percent of armed forces in mid-1960s • Increased during Vietnam • Twenty-five percent during Persian Gulf War, 1991 • Blacks entered the military because of • Draft • Patriotism • Educational and vocational opportunities • “Project 100,000” • Enabled acceptance of applicants who would’ve been rejected because of criminal records or lack of skills • 340,000 new recruits to Vietnam, 136,000 were black • Promise of “rehabilitation” but saw more combat than regular recruits

26. Vietnam • Black men served in disproportionately high numbers in Vietnam. Black and white troops fought together but tended mostly to keep to themselves behind the lines.

27. VI. Johnson: Vietnam Destroy the Great Society • War escalation • Many questioned if it was a worthy cause • “Credibility gap” • Great Society programs met increasing resistance • Johnson believed the nation’s honor at stake • Johnson worn out by Vietnam, Great Society criticisms , did not seek reelection

28. Cool Down • Why did Vietnam get in the way of the civil rights movement?

29. Muhammad Ali • Born Cassius Marcellus Clay 1942, Louisville Ky. • Won Olympic gold metal 1960 • Shortly after he and friends were refused service at whites only restaurant and fought with a “white gang” • Threw his gold medal in the Ohio River • 1964 challenged Sonny Liston for the heavyweight title

31. Ali vs. Liston • Liston was a heavy favorite • Prefight press conference Ali taunted Liston, calling him “the big ugly bear”“Liston even smells like a bear, after I beat him up I’m going to donate him to the zoo” • Ali states he was going to “float like a butterfly and sting like a bee” • At fights start Liston went for early KO • Round 4 Ali told his corner he couldn’t see, was blinded by ointment on Liston's gloves. • Liston couldn’t get the KO in rounds 5 • Ali regained vision and dominated round 6 • Liston refused to leave his corner for round 7, Ali wins TKO • Ali taunts ringside reporters “I shook up the world, I must be the greatest” • 22 years old became heavyweight champion of the world

33. Ali and the Nation of Islam • Attended his first NOI meeting n 1961 • 1962 befriended Malcolm X, Malcolm became a spiritual advisor • Officially joined after becoming champion and was given the name Muhammad Ali from Elijah Muhammad • Ali stuck with the NOI after Malcolm X left • Ali would leave the NOI in 1975 and become a Sunni Muslim

36. Ali War Quotes • “I am not going 10,000 miles to help murder, kill, and burn other people to simply help continue the domination of white slavemasters over dark people the world over. This is the day and age when such evil injustice must come to an end.” • “ Why should they ask me to put on a uniform and go ten thousand miles from home and drop bombs and bullets on brown people in Vietnam while so-called Negro people in Louisville are treated like dogs and denied simple human rights?” • “ My enemy is the white people, not the Viet Cong . . . You're my opposer when I want freedom. You're my opposer when I want justice. You're my opposer when I want equality. You won't even stand up for me in America because of my religious beliefs, and you want me to go somewhere and fight, when you won't even stand up for my religious beliefs at home.

37. Ali and Vietnam • Ali was a conscientious objector to the war, declared if drafted he would not serve • 1967 at a scheduled Army induction Ali refused to step forward when called 3 times • Arrested, suspended from boxing, stripped of title • Found guilty, Ali appealed to the Supreme Court • 1971 Supreme court overturned Ali’s conviction unanimously • 1971 fought champion Joe Frazier in the “fight of the century” • Ali taunted Frazier in press conference • Frazier retained the title and would hold a grudge that would last until Frazier's death • Ali: “the only people rooting for Joe Frazier are white people in suits, Alabama sheriffs, and members of the Ku Klux Klan. I'm fighting for the little man in the ghetto.” • Joe was sitting there smashing his fist into the palm of his hand, saying, 'What the heck does he know about the ghetto?'"

38. Ali’s road back to greatness • Ali Frazier 2, 1974, Frazier had lost title to George Foreman • Ali won decision and would fight Foreman for title in Zaire, “The rumble in the jungle” • Ali :"I've done something new for this fight. I done wrestled with an alligator, I done tussled with a whale; handcuffed lightning, thrown thunder in jail; only last week, I murdered a rock, injured a stone, hospitalized a brick; I'm so mean I make medicine sick.” • Ali would KO Foreman to regain title • Ali Frazier 3, 1975, “the thrilla in manilla” • Frazier's eyes swollen shut, could not fight the 15th round, Ali wins • Ali said afterwards that the fight "was the closest thing to dying that I know" and, when later asked if he had viewed the fight on videotape, reportedly said, "why would I want to go back and see Hell?"

39. Ali the decline • Due to boxing style, Ali would suffer brain injuries • After winning title for the 4th time in 1979, developed stutters and trembling hands • Fought for 2 more years, diagnosed with Parkinson's syndrome • 1996 Atlanta Olympics, light the Olympic flame and was presented a replacement gold medal • Mind remained intact, body would not respond

41. VII. King: Searching for a New Strategy • Martin Luther King, Jr. • White people thought him a dangerous radical • Black militants thought him an ineffectual moderate • King moved campaign to Chicago • Hatred and hostility surpassed Birmingham, Alabama • Racial discrimination tied to economic structure • Poor People’s Campaign • Tens of thousands of poor would descend on Washington • Among other things, a federally-guaranteed income policy

42. King: Searching for a New Strategy ( cont.) • Critical of Vietnam War • Alienated Johnson and some of President’s black supporters • Considered War hypocrisy • Federal Government determined to send troops to “slaughter men, women and children” while failing to protect black American civil right protesters in Albany, Birmingham and Selma. • Claimed President Johnson was more focused on winning war in Vietnam than winning the war on poverty.

43. King’s Murder • Memphis sanitation workers’ strike, February 1968 • Dr. Kings final speech • April 4 1968, 6:01 pm King stood on hotel balcony • King murdered by James Earl Ray • Civic rage in black communities • 125 cities • 46 people dead • 35,000 injured • Civil Rights Act, 1968 • Outlawed discrimination in the sale and rental of housing , proposed by Johnson 2 years prior

44. Martin Luther King in Memphis • Martin Luther King in Memphis on the balcony of the Lorraine Motel. King’s assassination in 1968 ignited a reign of urban rebellions and riots across America. For many black people King’s death signaled the end of the modern civil rights movement.

46. VIII. The Black Arts Movement and Black Consciousness • Black liberation • Black artists creating black art for black people • Black arts movement criticized • Celebration of black masculinity, racial exclusivity • James Baldwin • Unflinching commentator on white racism • Poetry and theater • Movement’s greatest and most significant impact • Music • James Brown, Aretha Franklin, Barry Gordy • I'm Black and I'm Proud

47. IX. The Second Phase of the Black Student Movement • Militant assertiveness, after 1968 • Occurred among black college students • The Orangeburg Massacre, February 8th, 1968 • South Carolina State College • Marks the beginning of second phase • Black college/high school students protesting whites only bowling alley • State officials used highway patrol and National Guard • Students taunted officers, throwing bottles, rocks, bricks • Nine patrolmen opened fire with shotguns • Killed 3, injured 27. Most shot in the back • Officers acquitted • One student activist, Cleveland Sellers, convicted of rioting, served nearly a year in prison

48. South Carolina State College Massacre, 1968, Orangeburg, South Carolina. The three young men killed in the Orangeburg Massacre were Henry Smith and Samuel Hammond, both 18, and a 17-year-old high school student, Delano Middleton.

49. Black Studies • A collective, interdisciplinary scholarly approach • Black students at white campuses demanded courses • Federal legislation banned discrimination • Financial aid programs

50. X. The Election of 1968 • Hubert Humphrey • Democratic • Richard Nixon • Republican • George Wallace • American Party