REVIEW FOR THE BIOLOGY REGENTS EXAM

1. REVIEW FOR THE BIOLOGY REGENTS EXAM

2. EXAM OVERVIEW PART A – multiple choice (30 points) • General knowledge questions PART B – mix of multiple choice and short answer (25 points) • Application of knowledge (graphing) PART C – short answer dealing with application of knowledge to real world situations (15 points) PART D – multiple choice and short answer (15 points) • Pertaining to the four New York State labs performed during the school year

3. GUIDELINES BRING PENS • All short answers must be in permanent ink • Answer sheet must now be done in ink BRING PENCILS • Graphs may be drawn in pencil • Essay questions may be bulleted

4. UNIT I SCIENCE AND THE LIVING ENVIRONMENT • Scientific method • Controlled experiments • Characteristics of a good experiment • Graphing

5. Vocabulary • Observation: what is seen or measured • Inference: a conclusion based on observation or evidence • Hypothesis: a prediction based on available evidence – should state cause and effect • A correct hypothesis can be tested and falsified (proven incorrect) using an experiment • The easiest way to write a correct hypothesis is to use an “if…then” statement • Theory: an explanation of natural events that is supported by strongevidence

6. A Controlled Experiment Compares the results of an experiment between two (or more) groups • Experimental group = group being tested or receiving treatment • Control group = “normal” group – should be identical to the experimental group in every way except they will not be receiving the new treatment • Placebo = a sugar pill or fake treatment given to the control group

7. VARIABLES • INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: • The variable being tested – the variable that the experimenter (I) put into the experiment • The “if” part of the hypothesis • The variable plotted on the X axis • DEPENDENT VARIABLE: • The data (D) being collected – the “then” part of the hypothesis • The variable plotted on the Y axis

8. Characteristics of a Good Experiment • Can be repeated the same way and get the same results • Have a large sample size • Are performed for longer periods of time • Test only oneindependent variable • Must test the hypothesis and show whether it is right or wrong • In objective - fact and opinion are not mixed • The experiment follows ethical and legal standards

9. DATA AND GRAPHS DATA TABLES are used to organize data that will be plotted on the graph • The first column is for the independent variable • The second column is for the dependent variable • Each column should be titled and include units of measurement • Data in the table should be arranged in ascending or descending order (according to directions)

10. DATA AND GRAPHS Both the X and Y axis of the graph should be labeled or titled. These should be the same ones used in the data table. Units of measurement must also be included. Y Hear rate (beats/min) X Temperature (ºC)

11. DATA AND GRAPHS • The independent variable is always plotted on the Xaxis • The dependent variable is always plotted on the Yaxis • The X and Y axis must be numbered: • Numbers must be in a uniform increment (count by 1’s, 5’s, 10’s, etc) • Your number scales should take up most of the graph • Your numbers must line up with the grid lines of the graph • You do not need to start numbering your axis with zero • Do not plot number values not included in the data table

12. DATA AND GRAPHS • To date, all graphs have been line graphs. If you draw a bar graph, you not receive any credit. • All plotted points must be surrounded by a circle (or square or triangle) according to the directions. 300 ∙ ∙ 200 ∙ Heart Rate (beats/min) ∙ ∙ 100 0 5 10 15 20 25 Temperature (°C)

13. UNIT II CHARACTERISTICS of LIVING THINGS • CHEMISTRY (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, enzymes, acids and bases) • HOMEOSTASIS, METABOLISM, and LIFE PROCESSES (including photosynthesis and respiration) • CELLS

14. CHEMISTRY The most common elements in living things are (in order) • Carbon • Hydrogen • Oxygen • Nitrogen

15. Organic Compounds Have Carbon and Hydrogen (C6H12O6 is organic H2O is not) Organic molecules are larger than inorganic molecules Inorganic Compounds WATER IS THE MOST IMPORTANT INORGANIC COMPOUND

16. Examples of Organic Compounds Carbohydrates are sugars and starches • All carbohydrates are made from simple sugars (their building blocks) like glucose • They supply quick energy for the body • Enzymes can break down carbohydrates into simple sugars

17. Examples of Organic Compounds Lipids include fats, oils, and waxes • Lipids are made of 3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol • Lipids are a source of stored energy for the body • Enzymes can break down lipids into fatty acids and glycerol

18. Examples of Organic Compounds Proteins include muscle fibers, hormones, enzymes, hemoglobin • Proteins are made from amino acids • Proteins make most of the chemicals used to build and run the organism’s body • Proteins, as far as your body is concerned, are the most important of the three organic molecules • It is the shape of proteins and how they fit together with other molecules that determine what proteins can do.

19. PROTEINS continued Four specific jobs of proteins: • Enzymes (see next slide) • Transport molecules in the cell membrane • Antibodies which fight infection • Hormones which are chemical messengers

20. PROTEINS continued Enzymes are catalysts made from proteins • Catalysts affect the rate (speed) of chemical reactions • Lock and Key Model demonstrates how the specific shape of an enzyme fits one and only one type of molecule (substrate)

21. PROTEINS continued If the protein loses its shape, it will not longer work At high temperatures, proteins (enzymes) loss their shape - that is why high temperatures are dangerous When this occurs, we say the enzyme is denatured

22. ACIDS and BASES • The pH scale measures the strengths of acids and bases • A low pH (0-6) is an acid • A high pH (8-14) is a base • A pH of 7 is neutral (water)

23. CHARACTERISTICS of LIVING THINGSHOMEOSTASIS • Homeostasis is a balanced state in an organism • Dynamic equilibrium means that the body stays balanced by taking action whenever the balance is disturbed (like sweating when the body is too hot) • To maintain homeostasis, organisms carry out the same basic life functions: TRANSPORT, NUTRITION, EXCRETION, RESPIRATION, GROWTH, SYNTHESIS, REGULATION(know these terms!)

24. CHARACTERISTICS of LIVING THINGSTRANSPORT • DIFFUSION: movement of molecules from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration. Requires no energy (passive transport) • ACTIVE TRANSPORT: requires energy, usually movement of molecules from areas of low concentration to areas of high concentration (against the natural flow of diffusion) • OSMOSIS: is the diffusion of water molecules into or out of a cell. If water flows in (a cell in pure water), the cell will swell and maybe burst. If water flows out (a cell in salt water), the cell will shrivel up.

25. CHARACTERISTICS of LIVING THINGSNUTRITION AUTOTROPHS make their own food HETEROTOPHS eat other organisms PHOTOSYNTHSIS is carried out by green plants, algae, and some bacteria (autotrophs) Plants make capture the sun’s energy to change inorganic materials into organic materials (food) CO2 + H2O → C6 H12O6 + O2 + H2O Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts of the plants’ cells

26. NUTRITION in PLANTS • Plants have stomates (holes) in their leaves that let them exchange the gasses used in photosynthesis. Guard cells open and close the openings to keep the plant from dehydrating. • Xylem carries water, and Phloem carries food through the plant

27. HUMAN NUTRITION • The digestive system is a one-way passage through the body that includes the mouth – esophagus – stomach – small intestine – large intestine – rectum – anus • Food is broken down by both mechanical and chemical digestion • Food is moved through the digestive system by muscular contractions called peristalsis • Undigested solid wasted is eliminated as feces

28. HUMAN NUTRITION • MOUTH Mechanical digestion and chemical digestion of starch • ESOPHAGUS Food tube to the stomach • STOMACH Begins protein digestion – acidic environment • SMALL INTESTINE Digestion completed – absorption of nutrients • LARGE INTESTINE Water and vitamin absorption

29. HUMAN NUTRITION DIGESTIVE ACCESSORY ORGANS • LIVER: produces bile (emulsifies fat) • GALL BLADDER: stores bile • PANCREAS: produces a whole spectrum of enzymes that complete chemical digestion in the small intestine – pancreatic juice also neutralizes the acidic chyme

30. Some clarification: • Solid waste is eliminated from the your body via the digestive tract – excretion is of cellular metabolic waste and is produced by the kidneys. • The digestive system gives the body nutrients – energy is produced only by cellular respiration in the cells

31. Cellular Respiration The process by which organisms take energy from the bonds in glucose molecules (breaks it down) and places it in ATP. ATP is the energy source of all living things. • AEROBIC RESPIRATION requires oxygen and yields more ATP (energy) from glucose than anaerobic (no oxygen) respiration does. C6 H12O6 + O2 → H2O + CO2 + ATP • AEROBIC RESPIRATION occurs in the mitochondria of the cells.

32. Cellular Respiration • ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION (fermentation) occurs when oxygen is not available. • Less ATP is produced • When human muscle cell are fatigued, anaerobic respiration begins and the product, lactic acid builds up which causes “burning” and aching muscles the next day. • ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION also occurs in yeast and some bacteria cells.

33. CELLULAR RESPIRATION vs. PHOTOSYNTHESIS • They are opposite reactions • They are important in recycling oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and water through the environment. CO2 + H2O → C6 H12O6 + O2 + H2O C6 H12O6 + O2 → H2O + CO2 + ATP • ALL organisms, including plants, perform cellular respiration to get their energy • Respiration is not breathing (that’s gas exchange or getting oxygen for respiration). Respiration is obtaining energy from glucose molecules • Organisms that perform anaerobic respiration do not need oxygen (or need to breath) to live

34. CELLS • Cells are the basic unit of life. All living things (except viruses) are made of cells. • The cell theory states: • All living things are made of one or more cells • Cells carry out all of an organism’s life functions • All cells come from other living cells

35. Cell Organelles (and their functions) • Cell membrane – controls what comes in and out of the cell • Cell wall – protection and shape • Nucleus – control center of the cell (DNA) • Chloroplast – site of photosynthesis • Cytoplasm – jelly like substance the organelles are suspended in • Ribosome – site of protein synthesis • Vacuole – storage • Mitochondria – site of cellular respiration

36. PLANT vs. ANIMAL CELLS • Plant cellshave cellwalls, animal cells do not • Both plant and animal cellshave cell membranes • Animal cells havecentrioles, plant cells do not • Animal cells usually have small vacuoles, plant cells usually have a few and larger

37. THE CELL MEMBRANE • Made of lipids and proteins • Is selectively permeable • Small molecules can pass through it (O2, H2O, CO2, glucose, amino acids) • Large molecules pass through with the help of transport proteins (proteins and starches) • If the membrane uses ATP to move a molecule through the membrane, it is active transport. • Proteins in the • Membrane • Receptor proteins • Transport proteins • Antigens (markers)

38. UNIT III HOMEOSTASIS AND THE HUMAN BODY • THE ORGANIZATION of LIVING THINGS • HUMAN BODY SYSTEMS • DISEASES and DISORDERS

39. ORGANIZATION ORGANELLS –functional units with the cell CELLS – basic unit of life TISSUES – groups of cells that are specialized to do certain jobs (including muscle and nerve tissue) • Specialization or differentiation is the process that changes a stem cell into a specialized cell • Stem cells are cells that have not yet been specialized • Almost all cells have a complete set of genes, but only those genes needed for the cells’ particular job are “turned on”. ORGANS – tissues working together (heart, lungs, kidneys) ORGAN SYSTEMS – organs working together (digestive system, circulatory system) ORGANISM

40. TRANSPORTHuman Circulation The circulatory system moves material (water, gasses, nutrients, hormones, wastes) through the body to the cells that need them. The main parts of the circulatory system are: • THE HEART • BLOOD • BLOOD VESSELS

41. Human Transport Components of the Blood: • RED BLOOD CELLS: carry oxygen on hemoglobin • WHITE BLOOD CELLS: fight disease • PLATELETS: small fragments that clot the blood • PLASMA: liquid part of the blood that carries everything except oxygen

42. HUMAN TRANSPORTThe Heart Parts of the heart • Chambers • Vessels Blood flow through the heart • Vena cavas – right atrium – right ventricle – pulmonary arteries – lungs – pulmonary veins – left atrium – left ventricle – aorta – tissues of the body

43. HUMAN TRANSPORTBlood Vessels ARTERIES: • Structure – thick and muscular (where pulse and blood pressure is taken) • Function – carries blood away from the heart • Blood type – oxygenated (except pulmonary artery VEINS: • Structure – thin and nonmuscular • Function – carries blood towards the heart • Blood type – deoxygenated (except the pulmonary vein CAPILLARIES: • Structure – one cell thick • Function – site of diffusion of materials between the blood and body cells

44. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM CO2 O2 RBC Breathing provides oxygen needed for cellular respiration (which releases energy from sugar) You breathe faster when CO2 builds up in the blood. The alveoli are the microscopic air sacs surrounded by capillaries (the respiratory surface) where gas exchange occurs

45. HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM The diaphragm is the muscle that allows breathing

46. REGULATION A stimulus is a change in the environment that you respond to. A neuron is a nerve cell. An impulse is the electrical signal carried by nerves – neurotransmitters are chemicals that transfer the impulse from neuron to neuron. A hormone is a chemical signal secreted by different glands in the body.

47. hormone Target cell Endocrine gland Non-target cell Receptor molecules are proteins on the surface of the cell membrane that receive signals from the nervous and endocrine system. These are needed for your cells to communicate and work together. As with all proteins, it is the shape of the receptor molecule that determines its function (or determines what signal it will receive)

48. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM The nervous system regulates your body with electrochemical impulses The central nervous system = the brain and spinal cord The peripheral nervous system = all the other nerves in the body

49. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM(the reflex arc) The spinal cord controls reflexes and relays information between the body and the brain

50. THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Hormones regulates the body. Slower than the nervous system but effects last longer. The pancreas makes insulin which lowers blood sugar. Adrenal glands make adrenaline when the body is under stress. Testosterone (male) and estrogen and progesterone (female) are the sex hormones. They are made in the gonads (testes and ovaries)