Methods of Persuasion

1. 17 C h a p t e r • Methods of Persuasion

2. Methods of Persuasion • Building credibility (ethos) • Using evidence • Reasoning (logos) • Appealing to emotions (pathos)

3. Ethos The name used by Aristotle for what modern students of communication refer to as credibility.

4. Credibility The audience's perception of whether a speaker is qualified to speak on a given topic.

5. Factors of Credibility • Competence • Character

6. Competence How an audience regards a speaker’s intelligence, expertise, and knowledge of the subject.

7. Character How an audience regards a speaker’s sincerity, trustworthiness, and concern for the well-being of the audience.

8. Types of Credibility • Initial • Derived • Terminal

9. Initial Credibility The credibility of a speaker before she or he starts to speak.

10. Derived Credibility The credibility of a speaker produced by everything she or he says and does during the speech.

11. Terminal Credibility The credibility of a speaker at the end of the speech.

12. Tips for Enhancing Credibility • Explain your competence • Establish common ground with your audience • Deliver your speeches fluently, expressively, and with conviction

13. Logos The name used by Aristotle for the logical appeal of a speaker. The two major elements of logos are evidence and reasoning.

14. Evidence Supporting materials used to prove or disprove something.

15. Tips for Using Evidence • Use specific evidence • Use novel evidence • Use evidence from credible sources • Make clear the point of your evidence

16. Reasoning The process of drawing a conclusion on the basis of evidence.

17. Four Types of Reasoning • Reasoning from specific instances • Reasoning from principle • Causal reasoning • Analogical reasoning

18. Reasoning from Specific Instances Reasoning that moves from particular facts to a general conclusion.

19. Reasoning from Specific Instances Example: Contrary to what the chemical industry argues, limiting pesticide use does not threaten the food supply. (1.)Sweden has cut back on pesticides by 50 percent over the last few years with almost no decrease in its harvest. (2.)The Campbell Soup Company uses no pesticides at all on tomatoes grown in Mexico, and they reap as much fruit as ever. (3.) Many California farmers who practice pesticide-free agriculture have actually experienced increases in their crop yields. 1 example+1 example+1 example = conclusion

20. Guidelines for Reasoning from Specific Instances • Avoid hasty generalizations • If your evidence does not justify a sweeping conclusion, qualify your argument • Reinforce your argument with statistics or testimony

21. Reasoning from Principle Reasoning that moves from a general principle to a specific conclusion.

22. Reasoning from Principle Example: Reasoning must be valid and all of the premises must be true. • To be elected President of the United States, a person must be at least 35 years of age. • Bill Clinton was elected President of the United States. • Therefore, Bill Clinton was at least 35 years of age when elected.

23. Guidelines for Reasoning from Principle • Make sure listeners will accept your general principle (premise) • Provide evidence to support your minor premise

24. Causal Reasoning Reasoning that seeks to establish the relationship between causes and effects.

25. Causal Reasoning Example: Because the ice was on the step, I fell and broke my leg.

26. Guidelines for Causal Reasoning • Avoid the fallacy of false cause • Do not assume that events have only a single cause

27. Analogical Reasoning Reasoning in which a speaker compares two similar cases and implies that what is true for the first case is also true for the second.

28. Analogical Reasoning Example: Almost every industrialized nation in the world except for the United States has a national curriculum and national tests to help ensure that schools throughout the country are meeting high standards of education. If such a system can work elsewhere, it can work in the United States as well.

29. Guidelines for Analogical Reasoning Above all, make sure the two cases being compared are essentially alike

30. Fallacy An error in reasoning.

31. Hasty generalization False cause Invalid analogy Red herring Ad hominem Either-or Bandwagon Slippery slope Fallacies

32. Hasty Generalization A fallacy in which a speaker jumps to a general conclusion on the basis of insufficient evidence. (associated with reasoning from specifics)

33. Example: Hasty Generalization “Last year alone three members of our state legislature were convicted of corruption. We can conclude, then, that all of our state's politicians are corrupt.” 1 member + 1 member + 1 member = all politicians

34. False Cause A fallacy in which a speaker mistakenly assumes that because one event follows another, the first event is the cause of the second. (associated with causal reasoning)

35. Example: False Cause “I'm sure the stock market will rise this year. It usually goes up when the American League wins the World Series.”

36. Invalid Analogy An analogy in which the two cases being compared are not essentially alike. (associated with analogical reasoning)

37. Example: Invalid Analogy “Of course Lisheng can prepare great Italian food; his Chinese cooking is fabulous.”

38. Red Herring A fallacy that introduces an irrelevant issue to divert attention from the subject under discussion.

39. Example: Red Herring “Why should we worry about endangered animal species when thousands of people are killed in automobile accidents each year?”

40. Ad Hominem A fallacy that attacks the person rather than dealing with the real issue in dispute.

41. Example: Ad Hominem “The governor has a number of interesting economic proposals, but let’s not forget that she comes from a very wealthy family.”

42. Either-Or A fallacy that forces listeners to choose between two alternatives when more than two alternatives exist.

43. Example: Either-Or “The government must either raise taxes or reduce services for the poor.”

44. Bandwagon A fallacy that assumes that because something is popular, it is therefore good, correct, or desirable.

45. Example: Bandwagon “The President must be correct in his approach to domestic policy; after all, polls show that 60 percent of the people support him.”

46. Slippery Slope A fallacy that assumes that taking a first step will lead to subsequent steps that cannot be prevented.

47. Example: Slippery Slope “Passing federal laws to control the amount of violence on television is the first step in a process that will result in absolute government control of the media and total censorship over all forms of artistic expression.”

48. Pathos The name used by Aristotle for what modern students of communication refer to as emotional appeal.

49. Emotional Appeals Appeals that are intended to make listeners feel sad, angry, guilty, afraid, happy, proud, sympathetic, reverent, etc.

50. Tips for Generating Emotional Appeal • Use emotional language • Develop vivid examples • Speak with sincerity and conviction