Chapter Three Morphology and Lexicon

1. Chapter ThreeMorphology and Lexicon

2. 一句话的死亡 艾米利·狄更生 有人说， 一句话说完， 它就死亡。 我说， 就在那天， 它的生命刚刚开端。 A word is dead When it is said, Some say. I say it just Begins to live That day. Emily Dickinson, A Word

3. What is Lexicon • LEXICON is a puzzling term and the beginner may find it hard to approach. What is lexicon? If we use the more familiar term “vocabulary” to replace it, the puzzlement will disappear. In this sense, lexicon is the collection of all the words of a language. Words are the focus of the study of lexicon, so the emphasis of this chapter naturally falls upon words ,i.e. ,the analysis and creation of words

4. What is Word? • You may wonder whether this question is worth answering ,because everyone of us can identify word without much effort due to our everyday language experience and our language intuition.

5. Words, like bricks used in building houses, are ready-made units for building sentences.

6. Word is a basic and meaningful sentence component that speakers recognize as the smallest speech units admitting between them a momentary pause in normal speech and a space in written texts. • 词是句子中有意义的基本单位，说话者把词看成语句中的最小单位，在说话时，单位之间可以略有停顿，书写时，单位之间有间隔。

7. A matter of sth

8. Single –word-sentence • A:who came yesterday? • B:John • What is the color of your bag? • B:Red. • A:What are you going to do this afternoon? • B:Swim.

9. Sentences are made up with different classes of words which are stored in a speaker’s mental dictionary or lexicon, they are the fundamental building blocks of language. These basic words can construct countless other words by the application of general rules of word constitution. Once formed, words receive their own entry in a speaker’s mental lexicon.

10. Sentences Inflection+ word formation words compound…….. Internal structure Derivation-affixation Smaller units morpheme Morphological rules Organized in a particular way The ways words are combined

11. Linguists define the word as the smallest free form in language. The plural marking –s is not a free form (and therefore not a word) since it never occurs in isolation and cannot be separated from the noun to which it belongs to. • The difference between free & bound morpheme.

12. Free morpheme: a word itself is called a free morpheme. • 1)does not have to occur in a fixed position • 2) appear in isolation and can be used on its own; • Bound morpheme: • 1)must be attached to another morpheme.

13. Word is meaningful • Word is made up of sounds and letters. But word is totally different from sounds or letters. Word is meaningful whereas sounds or letters are meaningless. • a is meaningful that it can be used to mean indefiniteness when modifying nouns. The letter “a” is, however, meaningless, which can be used as an element in building words.

14. Word is a Grammatical Unit • This can be understood in two ways. First of all, word in itself possesses some grammatical features. • take is transitive verb. • book is a countable noun.

15. Then word is the basic structural unit of language. It can enter a sentence and possess a structural position in the sentence; • He is an engineer. • He is not merely a pronoun, it is also the subject of the sentence.

16. Word is relatively Stable and Uninterruptible • Compared with other linguistic units such as phrase, clause ,and sentence, Word is the most stable linguistic unit, in respect of its internal structure ,that is ,the constituent parts of a complex word havelittle potential for rearrangement. • Chairman • if the two components chair and man are rearranged as ﹡manchair, it is an unacceptable word in English.

17. Counterexamples • dorm=to sleep • 来源于拉丁文dormire, “to sleep”。如dormitory 睡觉的地方→宿舍。 • BrE: a large room for several people to sleep in, for example in a boarding school or hostel • AmE: a large building at a college or university where students live [= hall of residence BrE]

18. Dormitory 一词常被简写为dorm; if you rearrange the word dormitory, what will happen? • You can spell the word ! • This kind of word game is called ANAGRAM. • a word or phrase that is made by changing the order of the letters in another word or phrase. dirtyroom

19. Listen twelve plus one woman Hilter Dog eat • Silent = • Eleven plus two= • Mother-in-law= • God= • Ate=

20. By UNINTERPRETIBLIITY, we mean new elements are not inserted into a word even when there several parts in a word. • Dis-appoint-ment • Nothing is to be inserted in between the three parts.

21. In contrast, one could add Jane in the coordinating subject of the following sentence. • Paul, (Jane) and Rebecca are my classmates. • (Even)Paul (even) didn’t (even) love (even ) Jane.

22. Classification of words • Variable and invariable words ( 可变词和不变词) • Grammatical and lexical words ( 语法词和词汇词) • Closed-class words and open class words ( 封闭类词和开放类词) • Word class ( 词类)

23. Variable and invariable words • Variable words have inflective endings ,i.e. part of the word remains constant while the other part changes regularly to fulfill different grammatical functions. • 可变词有形态变化，即词的一部分保持不变，另一部分有规则地变化以实现不同的语法功能 • Invariable words don’t have inflectional endings such as since , when and hello .

24. lexeme=base(root) +inflectional endingsswims swimming swam

25. Follow mat • Follows mats • Following • Followed • The same word may have different grammatical forms but part of the word remains relatively constant.

26. English inflectional affiixes

27. Grammatical word and lexical words • Those expressing grammatical meanings ,like conjunctions, propositions and pronouns are grammatical words-function words (功能词). • Those having lexical meaning is referring to the substance, action and quality, like nouns, verbs and adverbs are lexical words-content words（实义词）.

28. Closed-class words and open class words • The closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited such as pronouns, propositions and conjunctions, articles, etc.(few new words are added) • The open-class is one whose memberships is in principle infinite or unlimited, such as nouns, verbs ,adjectives and many verbs which make up the largest part of the vocabulary.(new words can be added)

29. He-masculine • She-feminine • Feminist movement • Neither masculine or feminine-----neutral E • They/their better candidate

30. Apple fan 苹果派 • Empty nester • Flash marriage • Interview expert 面霸 • Kuso 恶搞 • Indoorsy • Surprisepackage 闷骚 • Schoolbeau 校草 • Textspeak 火星文

31. Yummy mummy辣妈 • 3S girl 大龄未婚女青年 single seventies stuck • To air kiss • B2T (business to team) • Blind date • Bubble tea pearl tea • Rush for sofa

32. Word class • Word-class: Besides the traditional noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, proposition, conjunction, interjection （语气词）and article (parts of speech) 词类, particles （小品词）, auxiliaries, proform （代词形式） and determiners （限定词） can be added.

33. Particles • Particles includes at least the infinitive marker “to”(even though it has the same spelling form as the preposition “to”, it really has nothing in common with to or any other word class); the negative marker “not” and the subordinateunits in phrasal verbs. • Get by, do up and look back: 过活，包好，追忆

34. Auxiliaries • AUXILIARIES used to be regarded as verbs. Linguists today tend to define them as a separate word class rather than verbs, owing to their unique properties.

35. Comparing the behavior of auxiliaries with that of ordinary verbs in the following examples: • NEGATION I can’t come ﹡ I wantn’t come • INVERSION Is he coming? ﹡Keeps he coming? • CODE I’ll come and so will he. ﹡I intend to come and so intends Bill. • EMPHASIS He has come ﹡He seems to come.

36. Proforms • In traditional grammar, pronoun is the only word class which can function as a substitute for another item. To be more exact, it refers to the closed sets of items which can be used to substitute for a nominal group or a single noun. In fact, the following items are either labeled as pronoun or totally neglected.

37. Pro-adjective Your pen is red. So is mine. • Pro-verb He knows English better then he did. • Pro-adverb He hopes he’ll win and I hope so too. • Pro-locative Jame’s hiding there, behind the door.

38. In order to refer collectively to the items in a sentence which substitute for other items or constructions, some linguistics have advised to regard POR-FORM as a separate word class.

39. Determiners • This is a new word class popularly recognized both in British English and American English. It refers to those words which are used before the noun (including its pre-modifiers like adjectives) acting as head of a nominal group, and which determine the kind of reference the nominal group has:

40. For example ,whether it is definite (like the) or indefinite (like a (n) ),partitive (like some) or universal (like all)

41. According to Quirk, et al(1985:253) ,there are three sub-classes of DETERMINERS: • pre-determiners • central determines • and post-determiners

42. Pre-determiners include all ,both ,half double ,twice ,three times, one-third, one-fifth andthe like. • The most common and typical central determiners are the definite and indefinite articles .Others are this, that ,these, those ,every ,each ,some ,any ,no, other, neither ,my ,our ,his, her ,its and their etc..

43. Post-determiners include cardinal numerals, ordinal numerals, general ordinals like next, last ,past, (an) other , additional ; • Other quantifiers like many, (a) few, several, much, little, alot of ,plenty of, agreat deal of ,etc.

44. 1)When different determiners occur together, they follow the order of pre- + central + post- • 2)Within each sub-class, the members are usually exclusive of each other. • 3)Both ordinalnumerals and general ordinal may occur before cardinal numerals.

45. Thus we do not find the following expressions: • ﹡ their all trouble √ alltheir trouble 1) • ﹡ five the all boys √ all the five boys 1) • ﹡the this boy 2) • ﹡all both girls 2) • √ in the first two days • √ another two days

46. Morpheme and morphology • As we have mentioned above, word is meaningful. However, word is by no means the smallest meaningful unit. • In words likeunjustandbooks ,both un- and -sare meaningful .But they are not free, that is ,they cannot be used independently.

47. In linguistics, the minimal unit of meaning is called MORPHEME. It is the smallest unit in terms of the relationship between expression and content, a unit which can not be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning ,whether it is lexical or grammatical. • 语素是最小的语言单位，不能进一步分成更小的单位而不破坏或彻底改变词汇意义或语法意义。

48. So un-and -sare both morphemes ,because both of them are meaningful and not further dividable without destroying their meanings .The same is true with words justandbook .

49. What then is the relationship between word and morpheme? • Well a wordmay consist of one morpheme or more than one morpheme, while a morphememay not necessarily represent a word.

50. Ex.4-4 • 1-Morpheme un-,-ish,-s,-ed • 1-Morpheme word boy, desire, get, boy • 2-Morpheme word boy+ish, desir(e) +able • 3-Morpheme word boy+ish+ness, desir(e) +abl(e)+ity • 4-Morpheme gentle+man+li+ness,un+desir(e) +abl(e)+ity • 5-Morpheme un+gentle+man+li+ness • Over-5-morpheme word(7) anti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism • 反对教会与国家分开学说