Next Tuesday

1. Next Tuesday • Read article by Anne Treisman

2. Moving from Perception to Cognition • You will now find chapters in the Cognition textbook on reserve to be helpful

3. Attention

4. What is “attention” • attention is poorly defined - different people mean different things by “attention”

5. What is “attention” • attention is poorly defined - different people mean different things by “attention” • An aroused state: a state conducive to rapid perception and cognition. As in “pay attention!”

6. What is “attention” • attention is poorly defined - different people mean different things by “attention” • An aroused state: a state conducive to rapid perception and cognition. As in “pay attention!” • Vigilance: maintaining a state of engagement - “paying attention in class”

7. What is “attention” • attention is poorly defined - different people mean different things by “attention” • An aroused state: a state conducive to rapid perception and cognition. As in “pay attention!” • Vigilance: maintaining a state of engagement - “paying attention in class” • Selective Attention: focusing on one object or location to optimally deal with the sensory information coming from it

8. What is “attention” • “Everyone knows what attention is. It is the taking possession by the mind in clear and vivid form, of one out of what seem several simultaneously possible objects or trains of thought...It implies withdrawal from some things in order to deal effectively with others…” - William James

9. What is “attention” • James’ definition emphasizes two important aspects of attention:

10. What is “attention” • James’ definition emphasizes two important aspects of attention: 1. That attention implies a suppression of information at unattended locations

11. What is “attention” • James’ definition emphasizes two important aspects of attention: 1. That attention implies a suppression of information at unattended locations 2. That attention is a selection of some information for enhanced perception or mental operations

12. What is “attention” • Enhanced Perception or mental operations? • Further identification • Planning appropriate response • Encoding (storing) into memory • Entry into awareness

13. Learning About Attention by Pushing the Limits • Ulrich Neisser • Tracking one moving object out of many

14. Learning About Attention by Pushing the Limits • Ulrich Neisser • Tracking one moving object out of many • About 50% miss the gorilla

15. Learning About Attention by Pushing the Limits • Ulrich Neisser • Tracking one moving object out of many • About 50% miss the gorilla • Demonstration that unattended information is dramatically absent from consciousness/memory

16. Selective Attention A tale of bottlenecks and basketballs

17. Two Distinct Processes • There are two processes that get bundled into our idea of attention: • orienting - shifting attention (usually in space, but also to non-spatial features such as pitch) • selection - what attention does to perception • These are often confused and used interchangeably • We’ll switch back and forth between the two, but we’ll try to keep them separate • First: the consequences of selection

18. Information Theory: • ~1950’s: Psychologists began to think of the human perceptual mechanisms as “information processors”

19. Information Theory: • ~1950’s: Psychologists began to think of the human perceptual mechanisms as “information processors” • Began asking questions such as “how much information can the human mind handle at once?”

20. Information Theory • Donald Broadbent - earliest systematic investigations of selective attention

21. Information Theory • Donald Broadbent - earliest systematic investigations of selective attention x x x o o o x o o

22. Information Theory • Donald Broadbent - earliest systematic investigations of selective attention "Was there an x in the top left square?" "Was there an o in the bottom left square?"

23. Information Theory • Donald Broadbent - earliest systematic investigations of selective attention • when simultaneous questions were asked, subject performed poorly on all questions

24. Information Theory • Donald Broadbent - earliest systematic investigations of selective attention • First principle of human information processing: capacity is limited

25. Information Theory • Donald Broadbent - earliest systematic investigations of selective attention "Was there an x in the top left square?" "Was there an o in the bottom left square?"

26. Information Theory • Donald Broadbent - earliest systematic investigations of selective attention • when simultaneous questions were asked from physically separate speakers, and subject instructed in advance which question to answer, performance was nearly perfect

27. Information Theory • Donald Broadbent - earliest systematic investigations of selective attention Second principle of human information processing: information sources can be selected

28. Stages of Selection • Broadbent: Early Selection - a bottleneck exists early in the course of sensory processing that filters out all but the attended channel • Alternative theory: Late Selection - the bottleneck exists not at the lowest stages, but at the highest - such as response planning, memory and consciousness

29. Stages of Selection

30. Stages of Selection • Testing Early Selection Theory - what prediction can be made?

31. Stages of Selection • Testing Early Selection Theory - what prediction can be made? • Information (such as meaning of words) in unattended channel shouldn’t be processed for meaning

32. Stages of Selection • Shadowing Task: ignore one input, repeat back the other • Subjects are largely unaware of unshadowed message but… • Certain words such as their name distract them!? • Why is this puzzling?

33. Stages of Selection • Testing Early Selection Theory - what is another prediction that can be made? • Should be able to find differences in brain activity in primary sensory areas (A1, V1)

34. Stages of Selection • Electrical activity recorded at scalp (EEG) shows differences between attended and unattended stimuli in A1 within 90 ms Hansen & Hillyard (1980)

35. Stages of Selection • Evidence exists for both early and late selection mechanisms • One interpretation: early reduction in “sensory gain” followed by late suppression of unselected information

36. Orienting Attention

37. Control of Attention • Major Distinctions: Voluntary Reflexive

38. Control of Attention • Major Distinctions: Voluntary Reflexive Covert Overt

39. Voluntary Orienting • Attention can be oriented covertly • a commonly used metaphor is “the spotlight of attention”

40. Orienting Attention • Posner Cue - Target Paradigm: Subject presses a button as soon as x appears

41. Orienting Attention • Posner Cue - Target Paradigm:

42. Orienting Attention • Posner Cue - Target Paradigm:

43. Orienting Attention • Posner Cue - Target Paradigm:

44. Orienting Attention • Posner Cue - Target Paradigm: X

45. Orienting Attention • Posner Cue - Target Paradigm:

46. Orienting Attention • Posner Cue - Target Paradigm: That was a validly cued trial because the x appeared in the box that flashed

47. Orienting Attention • Posner Cue - Target Paradigm:

48. Orienting Attention • Posner Cue - Target Paradigm:

49. Voluntary Orienting • What is another way to make this paradigm a voluntary orienting paradigm? Symbolic Cue Symbolic cues may orient attention towards another location. Stimulus cues orient attention to the stimulated location.

50. Reflexive Orienting • Attention can be automatically “summoned” to a location at which an important event has occurred: