A Semantic Study of the Adverb Jiu in Mandarin

1. A Semantic Study of the Adverb Jiu in Mandarin ZHANG Lei LEE Peppina Polun Department of Chinese, Translation and Linguistics, City University of Hong Kong

2. Organization 1. Literature Review 2. Our Account 2.1 Focus Particle Jiu 2.2 Sufficiency Operator Jiu 2.3 Jiu with the ‘Close to’ Meaning 2.4 The Role of Stress 3. Concluding Remarks

3. 1. Literature Review • Previous studies like Biq (1984, 1988) among others have provided unified accounts for various usages of jiu. Lu (1984) suggests that the basic meaning of jiu is to restrict scope, and thus jiu usually takes the mood of stressing ‘small quantity’. Biq (1984, 1988) points out that as a focusing adverb jiu marks a simple focus(ing).

4. Paris (1987) puts forward that the discourse function of jiu is to establish a relation between two units that need not be explicit linguistic expressions. Lai (1995, 1999) argues that jiu is a scalar particle, which presupposes a change of state of the truth value of a proposition and the point at which this change occurs is located ‘father down’ than what is expected on the relevant scale. Similar to Lai’s account, Chen (2005) considers that jiu indicates ‘the fact is deviated from expected’, which to be more specific, implies ‘earlier or less than expected’.

5. However, no consensus has been reached on the core meaning of jiu. • Moreover, the unified accounts provided by previous analyses, i.e. treating jiu as a simple focus marker, a scalar particle or an adverb of denying expectation, are inadequate to account for all the phenomena of jiu.

6. 2. An Alternative Account • Along the line of Paris (1987), we put forward that the nuclear meaning of jiu is to establish a relation between two units, and to be more specific, is the relation between an asserted value and a reference value or its alternatives, between the antecedent and the consequent, or/and between two events/states that occur one after another. • Jiu can be classified into three according to its semantic functions: focus particle jiu, sufficiency operator jiu and the adverb jiu which expresses the ‘close to’ meaning.

7. 2.1 Focus Particle Jiu • König (1991) assumes a focus particle to have the following three properties: (a) a sentence with a focus particle entails the relevant sentence without this particle; (b) a focus particle quantifies over the alternative set; (c) a focus particle may include or exclude the alternatives as the possible values for the relevant open sentence. • Based on property (c), focus particles may be divided into two subgroups: exclusive adverbs and inclusive adverbs.

8. According to the relation between focus particles and scales, focus particles can be divided into the following subclasses. • (a) scalar particles, which are always related to a scale; • (b) particles are related to scales in some cases; • (c) non-scalar particles, which are not related to any scales.

9. In what follows, we will focus our discussion on cases where jiu serves as a focus adverb. • The focus adverb jiu has the basic semantic properties of focus particles. The asserted value introduces a set of alternatives on which jiu operates. • Generally speaking, as a focus adverb, jiu functions either as an exclusive adverb or a scalar adverb, which is determined by its direction of association.

10. When jiu associates with either an element to its right or the whole sentence, it functions as an exclusive adverb. (1) Zhangsan `jiu qu guo Deguo. Zhangsan JIU go ASP German ‘Zhangsan only has been to [German] F.’ • When the interacting element occurs to the left of the focus particle jiu, jiu plays the role of a scalar particle. (2) San ge renjiu neng bandong na zhang zhuozi. three CL person JIU can move that CL table ‘As few as three persons can move that table.’

11. 2.1.1 The Exclusive Adverb Jiu • As an exclusive adverb, jiu passes the two tests of exclusive particles. • Exclusive jiu quantifies over the alternative set and excludes these alternatives as possible values for the relevant open sentence. Hence it passes the quantification test. • A sentence with exclusive jiu entails the corresponding sentence without jiuand thus jiu passes the entailment test. (3) `JiuZhangsan hui shuo Fayu. JIU Zhangsan can speak French ‘Only Zhangsan can speak French.’

12. The exclusive adverb jiu contributes to the meaning of the sentence in two ways: (a) A sentence with exclusive jiu presupposes the corresponding sentence without jiu; (b) a sentence with exclusive jiu entails that none of the alternatives can fulfill the relevant open sentence. (4) `Jiuta du guo zhe ben shu. JIU he read ASP this CL book ‘Only he has read this book.’

13. when jiu serves the function as an exclusive adverb, two usages are involved. • The emphatic usage, in which jiu interacts with either the predicate to its right or the whole sentence exclusive of jiu itself. (5) Wo `jiuzhidao ni hui lai. I JIU know you will come ‘I did know that you would come.’

14. The limiting use of jiu. In this case jiu usually indicates ‘no other(s)’ or implies the asserted value is located lower than the excluded alternatives on the relevant scale. Its semantics is equivalent to the adverb zhi ‘only’. In general, the limiting jiu requires its associated element occur in its c-command domain. (6) Zhangsan `jiu mai le [san] F ben shu. Zhangsan JIU buy ASP three CL book ‘Zhangsan only bought [three] F books.’

15. It is argued that the exclusive adverb jiu has either a scalar use or a non-scalar use, which is determined by two factors, namely the usages of jiu and the context. • In the emphatic case, jiu indicates that in contrast to the alternatives, only the associate element of jiu can satisfy the discourse. The alternatives introduced are generally the negation of the asserted value. It is difficult to say that the asserted value and its alternatives are ordered on a scale. As a result, in this case jiu has the tendency to take a non-scalar use.

16. In the limiting case, whether jiu has a scalar use or not is highly determined by the context. (3) `JiuZhangsan hui shuo Fayu. JIU Zhangsan can speak French ‘Only Zhangsan can speak French.’

17. 2.1.2 The Scalar Adverb Jiu • As a scalar particle jiu is always related to a scale and evaluates the asserted value denoted by the interacting focus phrase. The alternatives introduced by the asserted value are ordered on a scale in a certain way. (2) `San ge renjiu neng bandong na zhang zhuozi. three CL person JIU can move that CL table ‘As few as three persons can move that table.’

18. It is argued that in the case that jiu acts as a scalar particle, the semantic contribution of jiu to the sentence in which it occurs is considered to be as follows: • a sentence with the scalar adverb jiu presupposes the corresponding sentence without jiu; • a sentence with the scalar adverb jiu entails either (a) none of the alternatives can satisfy the relevant open sentence, or (b) the alternatives introduced can fulfill the open sentence in question.

19. When the associate element of jiu can be evaluated as the ‘threshold value’, a sentence with the scalar adverb jiu entails the alternatives can satisfy the open sentence; otherwise, it entails no alternatives can make the open sentence true. (2) `San ge renjiu neng bandong na zhang zhuozi. (7) Bisi mingtianjiu kaishi. game tomorrow JIU start ‘The game will begin as early as tomorrow.’

20. 2.2 Sufficiency Operator Jiu • In the case that jiu functions as a sufficiency operator, it associates with an element to its left, and indicates that the asserted value has the property denoted by the relevant part of the sentence, or determines the actuation of the relevant event. (8) `[Zhangsan] jiu hui shuo Yingyu. Zhangsan JIU can speak English ‘`Zhangsan can speak English.’ (9) Ruguo ni qu, wo jiu bu qu le. if you go I JIU NEG go SFP ‘If you go, I will not go.’

21. In fact, the types of subordinate clauses that can interact with jiu are not restricted to conditional clauses, which can be purposive clauses, reason clauses and the like. (10) a. Yinwei linshi you shi, jiu zai Changsha douliu le liang tian. because temporary have things JIU in Changsha stay ASP two CL ‘Because of temporarily emergency, (we) had stayed in Changsha for two days.’ b. Weile gan shijian, jiu shao xiuxi yihui’er. for catch-up-with time JIU few rest a-while ‘In order to gain time (let’s) take less rest.’

22. In addition, in the case of jiu being a sufficiency operator, the relation between the associate element of jiu and its alternatives is loose. It is difficult to judge which alternative(s) can satisfy the relevant open sentence and which cannot.

23. 2.3 Jiu with the ‘Close to’ Meaning • In the case that jiu holds the ‘close to/ near’ meaning, two cases are involved: (a) jiu indicates ‘immediate future’, which can be treated as a temporal adverb. (11) Wo jiu zou. I JIU go ‘I will go immediately.’ (b) jiu implies ‘two events happened/will happen in quick succession. (12) Wo shuo wan jiu zou. I say finish JIU go ‘I will go immediately after I have said it.’

24. 2.4 The Role of Stress • As pointed by Lü et al (1980), etc., the position of stress will influence the usages of jiu and the interpretation of the relevant sentence. (13) Zhangsan jiu yao le san zhang piao. Zhangsan JIU ask-for ASP three CL ticket Reading1:‘Zhangsan only asked for three tickets’. Reading2: ‘Zhangsan asked for three tickets.’ • We suggest that stress highly determines the direction of jiu’s association. When jiu is stressed, it functions as an exclusive adverb; and when an element to the left of jiu is stressed, in theory jiu serves either as a sufficiency operator or a scalar adverb, as determined by the context.

25. 3 Concluding Remarks • This paper has explored the core meaning of the adverb jiu and discussed its semantic functions. It is claimed that the various usages of jiu can be derived from the basic meaning of jiu as establishing a semantic relation between two units. • The focus adverb jiu establishes both a relation between the asserted value and its alternatives, and a relation between the asserted value and the relevant open sentence.

26. As a sufficiency operator, jiu builds up a relation between the asserted value and the relevant open sentence. • Jiu with the ‘close to’ meaning builds up a relation either between the actual time value and the reference time value or between two successive events. • Finally, the role that stress plays in determining the interpretation of jiu-sentences has also been examined.

27. Thank You !