Working Memory

1. Working Draft:A “stepwise animation” illustration of cognitive load theory, followed by speculation of how it might link to instruction of written word structure Pete Bowers Nov. 12/07 This slide show is just a draft made to think through cognitive load theory and how it might relate to my research on written word structure instruction based on Real Spelling teaching tools (Ramsden, 2001). It was made light of conversations with John Kirby and these three main readings: Baddeley, A. (2000). The episodic buffer: a new component of working memory? Trends in Cognitive Science, 4, 417-423. Schnotz, W & Kurschner, C. (2007). A reconsideration of Cognitive Load Theory. Educational Psychology Review. 19, 496-508. Schnotz, W. & Rasch, T. (2005).Enabling, Facilitating, and Inhibiting Effects of Animations in Multimedia Learning: Why Reduction of Cognitive Load Can Have Negative Results on Learning. Educational Technology Research & Development (53) 3, 47-58

2. Working Memory Unintegrated information in WM Unintegrated information in WM Learner A Learner B

3. Working Memory LTM Germane Load: Learner A Learner B Appropriate Instructional design encourages students to engage in cognitive processing that targets the construction of well integrated mental representation of schema. (Paas & van Merriënboer, 1994; Schnotz & Kurschner, 2007)

4. Working Memory LTM Learner A Learner B Prior learning has produced: Poorly integrated representations in LTM Well integrated representations in LTM LTM LTM

5. Working Memory unit of WM processing Learner A Learner B Prior learning has produced: Poorly integrated representations in LTM Well integrated representations in LTM LTM LTM

6. Working Memory Learner A Learner B Prior learning has produced: Poorly integrated representations in LTM Well integrated representations in LTM LTM LTM LTM

7. Working Memory Learner A Learner B Prior learning has produced: Poorly integrated representations in LTM Well integrated representations in LTM LTM LTM LTM

8. Working Memory Learner A Learner B Prior learning has produced: Poorly integrated representations in LTM Well integrated representations in LTM LTM LTM LTM

9. Working Memory Learner A Learner B Prior learning has produced: Poorly integrated representations in LTM Well integrated representations in LTM LTM LTM LTM

10. Working Memory Learner A Learner B Prior learning has produced: Poorly integrated representations in LTM Well integrated representations in LTM LTM LTM LTM

11. Working Memory Learner A Learner B Prior learning has produced: Poorly integrated representations in LTM Well integrated representations in LTM LTM LTM LTM

12. Working Memory Germane processing not yet begun. Germane processing begins. Prior learning has produced: Poorly integrated representations in LTM Well integrated representations in LTM LTM LTM LTM

13. Working Memory Prior learning has produced: Poorly integrated representations in LTM Well integrated representations in LTM LTM LTM LTM

14. Working Memory Prior learning has produced: Poorly integrated representations in LTM Well integrated representations in LTM LTM LTM

15. Working Memory Prior learning has produced: Poorly integrated representations in LTM Well integrated representations in LTM LTM LTM

16. Working Memory Prior learning has produced: Poorly integrated representations in LTM Well integrated representations in LTM LTM LTM

17. Working Memory Well integrated schema, is only helpful if represents how things work! Well integrated representations in LTM LTM

18. For Educators to consider: Again… Appropriate Instructional design encourages students to engage in cognitive processing that targets the construction of well integrated mental representation of schema. (Paas & van Merriënboer, 1994; Schnotz & Kurschner, 2007) Prior learning has produced: Poorly integrated representations in LTM Well integrated representations in LTM LTM LTM

19. Appropriate Instructional design encourages students to engage in cognitive processing that targets the construction of well integrated mental representation of schema. (Paas & van Merriënboer, 1994; Schnotz & Kurschner, 2007) For consideration: How well does typical instruction of the written word make use of this principle of instructional design? Might word structure instruction be a way of targeting well integrated mental representations of schemas for how the written word works to represent meaning? Prior learning has produced: Poorly integrated representations in LTM Well integrated representations in LTM LTM LTM

20. Typical classroom instruction directs cognitive processing at surface patterns of ‘letter-sound’ correspondences. These patterns seem to break down randomly on some words and are treated as irregular (e.g. does, business). “irregular” or confusing spellings do + es --> does hop(p) + ing --> hopping hope/ + ing --> hoping busy/i + ness --> business

21. Some words have surface patterns that are not seen as irregular, but inconsistent letter-sound patterns make the formation of stable schemas difficult. How does a child remember which spelling (hopping or hoping) describes what rabbits do? “irregular” or confusing spellings do + es --> does hop(p) + ing --> hopping hope/ + ing --> hoping busy/i + ness --> business

22. Without knowledge of the details of how word structure works, teachers can hope to help students remember spellings like these, but they can’t build a coherent understanding of the principles which govern the spelling system and apply to all complex words. “irregular” or confusing spellings do + es --> does hop(p) + ing --> hopping hope/ + ing --> hoping busy/i + ness --> business

23. What are the implications for the learner when instruction is limited to surface patterns of already constructed words…… “irregular” or confusing spellings do + es --> does hop(p) + ing --> hopping hope/ + ing --> hoping busy/i + ness --> business

24. …instead of focusing cognitive processing on making sense of how those surface patterns derive logically and consistently from underlying morphological structural patterns? “irregular” or confusing spellings regular written word structure do + es --> does hop(p) + ing --> hopping hope/ + ing --> hoping busy/i + ness --> business

25. The surface patterns of all of these words can be clearly demonstrated as the result of extremely consistent underlying structural principles. The spellings of these words can be understood though instruction about underlying morpho-phonological structure of English spelling. “irregular” or confusing spellings regular written word structure do + es --> does hop(p) + ing --> hopping hope/ + ing --> hoping busy/i + ness --> business

26. The word sum and the word matrix (following slides) are simple tools that teachers can use to point to the underlying morphological structure of any complex word. “irregular” or confusing spellings regular written word structure do + es --> does hop(p) + ing --> hopping hope/ + ing --> hoping busy/i + ness --> business

27. The following slides are have been adapted from presentations for teachers and parents. They show how the word sum and the word matrix draw a learner’s attention to the coherent structure of English spelling with any complex word. For example the word <does> is used as a context to teach coherent, fundamental patterns that structure all complex words. These slides are presented here to with the suggestion that this instruction seems to be an excellent match for what we know about learners’ “cognitive architecture” as described by cognitive load theory. Consider just two ways this instruction might effectively develop well integrated mental representation of written word schemas, in part by reducing extraneous load, while maximizing germane load…

28. 1) Concrete representations of written word structure with matrices and word sums enable the use of “worked examples” of word structure. Such instruction facilitates explicit discussion, investigation and manipulation of complex patterns (germane load) while minimizing extraneous load. For example the word sum allows the learner to see each meaning unit of a complex word, how they combine (with or without suffixing changes) to create a completed spelling. This information does not need to be held in working memory while considering meaning connections and any pronunciation changes between derivations. 2) Consistent patterns are regularly reinforced with continued study. Integrated mental representations in LTM are strengthened and expanded with continued study instead of countered with frequent exceptions to previous learned rules (eg. I before e, except after c). Do the following examples fit this description?

29. Why might morphology be important for literacy development and instruction? It clarifies the system… Whydoes notduz or dose? Instruction limited to surface patterns, cannot explain the logical, consistent structure of <does>, but <duz> or <dose> are not.

30. Why might morphology be important for literacy development and instruction? It clarifies the system… Whydoes notduz or dose? do+es  does do+ne  done do+ing doing

31. Why might morphology be important for literacy development and instruction? Learned patterns expand to other words… Word matrix (Ramsden, 2001) do+es  does go+es  goes do+ne  done go+ne  gone do+ing doing go+ing going

32. The following sequence of lessons directs students’ attention to the pattern for dropping silent <e>… Matrix by Ramsden(2001) www.realspelling.com

33. Test hypothesis with a wider set of words… Clarify precision of the pattern. Matrix by Ramsden(2001) www.realspelling.com

34. Now that the consistent pattern has been established, this flow chart is used to practice this pattern systematically. Such practice aims to build coherent schemas in LTM so that recognition of this pattern can become automated. The consistent patterns for consonant doubling and y/i patterns can be taught with similar flow charts.

35. A sketch of “Word Structured Inquiry” Learning how to build words with meaning units helps you learn how to take written words apart into their meaning units. Word structure knowledge and strategies for orthographic investigations with the aid of references are both reinforced and expanded as teachers explicitly teach how to apply that knowledge in the study of any content area.

36. Students discover that lessons they learn in their explicit orthographic instruction and practice, is effective for making sense of printed words. Interesting and surprising discoveries, regularly sparked by students, are made. They identify questions to which teachers don’t know immediate answers. Students get the opportunity to observe a mature learner find answers to questions. The teacher can take advantage of this context to explicitly break down the process of working out problems.

37. Students discover that lessons they learn in their explicit orthographic instruction and practice, is effective for making sense of printed words. Interesting and surprising discoveries, regularly sparked by students, are made. They identify questions to which teachers don’t know immediate answers. Students get the opportunity to observe a mature learner find answers to questions. The teacher can take advantage of this context to explicitly break down the process of working out problems. The student who posed a question that was good enough that the teacher had to work to find an answer is likely to be interested in the answer. Students often work hard and independently to come up with good questions in classes learning in this way.

38. Example “Word Structured Inquiry” Applying word structure knowledge to new contexts With more practice breaking words in to bases and affixes, we get better at seeing morphemes inside words and problem-solving word connections like these: instruct:instructions / instructor / instructed

39. Example “Word Structured Inquiry” Applying word structure knowledge to new contexts And then a child notices: destruction and structure… They ask, “Don’tthese connect to instruction also?”

40. Example “Word Structured Inquiry” Applying word structure knowledge to new contexts And then a child notices: destruction and structure… They ask, “Don’tthese connect to instruction also?” Seems to be some kind of meaning connection, but the structure confuses. The pieces don’t seem to fit.

41. Example “Word Structured Inquiry” Applying word structure knowledge to new contexts And then a child notices: destruction and structure… They ask, “Don’tthese connect to instruction also?” Seems to be some kind of meaning connection, but the structure confuses. The pieces don’t seem to fit. Strategy: Look for structure and meaning cues. - Peel off any affixes?

42. Example “Word Structured Inquiry” We know the prefixes <in-> and <de->… in+struction and de+struction but <struction>, doesn’t make any sense.

43. Example “Word Structured Inquiry” We know the prefixes <in-> and <de->… in+struction and de+struction but <struction>, doesn’t make any sense. The word <structure> could have a <-ure> suffix, and the others could use an <-ion> suffix. struct+ure; in+stuct+ion; de+struct+ion But <struct> isn’t a word either. Students have discovered something that needs teaching…

44. There are bases, that are never words on their own. Word matrix (Ramsden, 2001) www.realspelling.com

45. So, instruction, destruction and structure were connected in meaning and structure by a base that is not a word on its own… in+struct + ion  instruction Word matrix (Ramsden, 2001) www.realspelling.com

46. So, instruction, destruction and structure were connected in meaning and structure by a base that is not a word on its own… in+struct + ion  instruction de+struct+ion  destruction Word matrix (Ramsden, 2001) www.realspelling.com

47. So, instruction, destruction and structure were connected in meaning and structure by a base that is not a word on its own… in+struct + ion  instruction de+struct+ion  destruction struct+ure  structure Word matrix (Ramsden, 2001) www.realspelling.com

48. So, instruction, destruction and structure were connected in meaning and structure by a base that is not a word on its own… in+struct + ion  instruction de+struct+ion  destruction struct+ure  structure Teaching this matrix introduces students to the wider word family including: construct, obstruction, substructure, instructive, instructor, structurally… Word matrix (Ramsden, 2001) www.realspelling.com

49. Thoughts on linking Cognitive Load Theory to written word instruction: • If instruction that builds cohesive, well-integrated mental schemas in the LTM facilitates efficient, effective learning, isn’t it particularly important that instruction directs students to an accurate understanding of how written word structure works? • Are the teaching tools and strategies identified here “linking instruction to cognitive architecture”? • Structured inquiry of underlying patterns • Matrix and word sums for bringing focus to building block nature of English spelling • Flow charts to practice specific patterns

50. Thoughts on linking Cognitive Load Theory to written word instruction: Most children learn to be successful readers and writers with the aid of instruction that is based on what would be considered the best research evidence. However, the vast majority of even the most successful students who receive this instruction will spend the rest of their literate life assuming that English spelling is irregular and doesn’t merit a great deal of attention.