Introduction to Psychology: Course Overview and Study Methods

1. PSY295-001Week 1 Summerfelt 60 Baker 432-6172 summerf6@msu.edu

2. Introductions • Course • Book • Focus, goals • Syllabus

3. Study Group • Small study groups will be formed to maximize everyone’s ability to not only succeed in this course but excel • will likely meet for about 1 hour a week. & 2 before exams • Participation in the study groups is voluntary – and is not required • If you fall into any of the following categories then you should plan to meet in a study group: • have failed this class (or a similar one) in the past, • have had trouble in other classes at MSU, • suffer from intense math phobia/anxiety, • are concerned that you may not be able to pass this class for any reason, • have received an override due to a missing pre-requisite, or • just want to make sure you get all the help you can • If any of these are true for you, please submit a sheet a paper with your Name, PID, and schedule of available times

4. Extra Credit Possibilities • Darrin’s study • Others as the semester progresses

5. Research, Statistics, and all that Mumbo-Jumbo • Science—Theories—Research

6. Science • ??What is the purpose of science?? • Ultimate goal is to understand the world (mythology, religion) • Uniqueness of Science is that it uses a standard process to examine the world.

7. Theories • Abstract ideas that explain the world (Freud, philosophy) • Provide framework for inquiry and explanation • Logic models

8. Theory • Thomas Kuhn and notion of scientific revolution • Evidence gathered • Anomalies grow until theory is changed

9. Research • Systematic inquiry to validate theories using scientific methods • Hypotheses • Ho—Ha • Is there evidence to accept the alternative • Empirical

10. Theory and research • Theory leads to research • Research leads to theory

11. Stages of Scientific Inquiry (theory influences all stages) • Selection of topic and review of literature • Formulation of research questions (hypotheses) • Design of measurement procedures • Design of sampling procedures • Actual observation and collection of data from sample • Analysis of the data and evaluation of research questions

12. Role of Statistical Methods • To understand the literature • To understand the rationale underlying research in social and behavioral sciences • To carry out social and behavioral research leading to decision-making • To comprehend the everyday use of statistical information

13. Statistics and Science • Descriptive statistics • Characterize, organize, and present phenomena of interest • Examples are frequencies and correlations • Inferential statistics • Populations and Samples • The predicament of Frito Lay • Polling procedures • Inference • Determination of Cause and Effect • Differences due to context

14. Descriptive and Inferential Statistics • Descriptive statistics allow scientists to form hypotheses about the nature of phenomena • Description may not represent relationship “Correlation is not causation” • Inferential statistics allow scientists to make generalizations and identify limitations • Inferential statistics used to assess the risk of making causal statements

15. TYPES OF STUDIES • Descriptive/correlational • Inferential/empirical

16. Symbols Signed numbers Order of operations Fractions Factorials Exponents Square roots Statistical Notation & Summation Sign Math Review

17. Addition + Subtraction - Multiplication X Division / greater than > less than < greater than or equal to≥ less than or equal to≤ not equal to≠ absolute value | x | Symbols

18. Signed numbers • Think of the number line • Adding signed numbers • Subtracting signed numbers • Multiplication and division with signed numbers

19. Exponents • Base Number and exponent • For example,204 “twenty to the fourth power” • Exponents of 2 are squares, of 3 are cubed • Base numbers with 0 or 1 as exponent • Exponents with multiple terms • Negative base numbers • Parentheses • Fractions

20. Square roots • The square root of a number is the inverse of raising that number to the second power

21. Order of operations • Parentheses or terms • Calculate any exponents or roots • Compute any multiplication or division • Perform any addition or subtraction between terms

22. Fractions • Addition/subtraction • Multiplication/division • Reduction

23. Variable names X and Y Individual values X versus Xi N Constants Summation notation X X2 (X)2 XY X Y Notation

24. Ways to Study Psychological Processes • Schumacher 1977

25. Ways to Study Psychological Processes 1. What I know about myself (introspection) 2. What others know about me 3. What others know about themselves 4. What ONE knows about others--general approach in Psychology, Education, Human Development, etc.

26. Methods of Data Collection • Observations (checklists, test, questionnaires • Introspective methods (diaries, journals, letters • Speculations (theory) • Simulations (theory)

27. Approaches to Behavior Description • Empiricism: theory -- empirical evidence • Constructivism: theory -- realization of predicted events

28. Three Basic Research Designs • Naturalistic Observation • Simulation • Experiment

29. Naturalistic Observation • Non-interference (unobtrusive) • focus on invariant patterns of constancy and change • applied when there is only limited knowledge • Produces descriptive statements

30. Simulation • Exact and concrete formulation of assumed processes • mathematics, logic, computer programs, etc. • deterministic and probabilistic • used when • solid amount of information available • explicit formulation of models

31. Experiment • Hypothesis-driven: need a set of properly stated expectations • operational definitions • dependent vs. independent variables • confounded variables controlled/avoided • can be exploratory or testing of specific hypotheses

32. The Language of Statistics • Population: the universe of what is being studied • Sample: a subgroup of population based on various procedures (probabilistic & non-probabilistic) • Statistic: characteristic of a sample • Parameter: characteristic of a population • Sampling Error: amount of mismatch between sample and population

33. Variables and constants • Independent • Dependent • Intervening • Discrete and continuous

34. Measurement • Datum and data • Levels of measurement • Discrete and continuous

35. Discrete variables • Categories • Mutually exclusive • Exhaustive • Coding scheme

36. Continuous variables • Continuous variables have infinite possibilities • When we use a number for a continuous variable it actually represents an interval with a • Lower real limit • Upper real limit

37. Types of Analyses • Univariate • bivariate • multivariate

38. Measurement Scales 1 • Nominal • Minimum of 2 categories • No order or magnitude in categories • Ordinal • Minimum of 2 categories • Ranked or ordered by degree of the trait measured

39. Measurement Scales 2 • Interval • Values—standard units • Do not have an absolute zero • Ratio • Values—standard units • Have an absolute zero

40. Sampling procedures • Hawthorne effect, Eisenberg principle • Sample and Sampling (idea is to represent the population • Probabilistic - simple random • Nonprobability sampling – availability, convenience, judgement