Urbanization As Seen Through Late 19c - Early 20c Architecture

1. Urbanization As Seen Through Late 19c - Early 20c Architecture By: Susan M. PojerHorace Greeley HS Chappaqua, NY

2. Megalopolis. Mass Transit. Magnet for economic and social opportunities. Pronounced class distinctions. - Inner & outer core New frontier of opportunity for women. Squalid living conditions for many. Political machines. Ethnic neighborhoods. Characteristics of UrbanizationDuring the Gilded Age

3. NewUse ofSpace NewClassDiversity NewArchitectural Style New Energy NewSymbols ofChange &Progress The City as aNew “Frontier?” New Culture(“Melting Pot”) Make a NewStart New Form ofClassic “RuggedIndividualism” New Levels of Crime, Violence, & Corruption

4. By 1900, the population of the United States was 80 million people. It was 40 million in 1870. So it doubled. However, the population in the cities tripled during this same time period. 40% of all Americans lived in cities, a stark difference from the beginning of the 19th century, when less than 10% of the population lived in cities. Chicago, New York, and Philadelphia all boasted more than a million people and New York, with 3.5 million people, was the second largest city in the world (behind London) Population Shift:Urbanization

5. CHICAGO: "The Windy City"

6. William Le Baron Jenney • 1832 – 1907 • “Father of the ModernSkyscraper” • First Skyscraper was 10 stories and once elevators were perfected, cities such as New york and Chicago built to the sky.

7. W. Le Baron Jenney: CentralY.M.C.A., Chicago, 1891

8. Louis Sullivan • 1856 – 1924 • The ChicagoSchool ofArchitecture • Form followsfunction!

9. Louis Sullivan: Bayard Bldg., NYC, 1897

10. Louis Sullivan: Carson, Pirie, Scott Dept. Store, Chicago, 1899

11. D. H. Burnham • 1846 – 1912 • Use of steelas a superstructure.

12. D. H. Burnham: Marshall Fields Dept. Store, 1902

13. As cities grew, the need for good mass transit became apparent: Electric Trolley Elevated trains Subway systems As a result, cities also grew outward at the same time they grew upward. Cities became a megalopolis, carved into different districts for business, industry, an residential neighborhoods-which were segregated by race, class, and ethnicity A City of Commuters

14. Industrial jobs drew people to the city, but cities and the lifestyle also drew people in: Late night glitter of social life Modern amenities such as the telephone, plumbing, and electricity. Engineering marvels such as the skyscrapers of New York and Chicago were awe-inspiring, as well as the Brooklyn Bridge. Department stores such as Macy’s and Marshall Fields provided jobs for women and also was characteristic of the consumer economy. Big City Lights

15. However, cities also came with new problems. In rural America, many things were recycled and most homes produced minimal waste. However, big cities were bastions of waste and garbage. Mass consumption of food and cloths meant increased waste. Also, cities grew up too fast and poor urban planning meant that many lived in very unsanitary conditions: Sanitary facilities were lacking and could not keep up with the pace of population Impure water Uncollected garbage Unwashed bodies Droppings from draft animals Slums increased and were the embodiment of unsanitary conditions (dumbbell tenements and flophouses) Waste Management

16. Old Immigration Ireland, Germany, Britain, Scandinavia (mostly Western Europe and the British Isles) Many shared similar values that were easily integrated into American life. Major difference was the roman Catholic Irish and Germans High rates of literacy and also some forms of representative democracy from their homelands. New Immigration

17. New Immigration starting in 1880 was much different. New Immigrants were: Poles, Lithuanians, Croats, Slovaks, Greeks, Jews, and Italians Came from countries with little history of representative government Many were orthodox Christians and Jewish Largely illiterate and poor Sought industrial jobs and packed into the cities. In 1880, they were 19% of all immigrants, by the first decade of the 20th century, they were 66% Cities such New York and Chicago grew in size as these new immigrants came to America New Immigration

18. Why did they come? Europe had become overcrowded as population exploded due to plentiful supply of food from their own farms and also America. Industrialization and urbanization in Europe created a vast pool of unemployed people Europeans flooded their cities, but some moved on and abandoned the Old World to make life elsewhere. In total, some 30 million Europeans moved to the United States. So, in reality, American urbanization and immigration was in many ways a by-product of European urbanization. New Immigration

19. Why America? Land of opportunity and abundance. Plenty of food, comforts, and a perception that anyone can make it in America. Also, American businesses need more people to maximize profits: Industrialists wanted low- wage labor Railroads needed buyers of their land States wanted more population Steamships needed human cargo to make a profit. Some also came due to prosecution and programs against them in their own country. Such as Russian-Jews Jewish Pogrom was instituted and many were chased from their homes and made their way to Atlantic seaboard, especially New York However, many returned home. Some 25% returned after making a living in America. New Immigration

20. Generally speaking, the government did little to aid or help the new arrivals or to assist them in assimilating to American culture. Consequently, the political machines in large cities, such as Boss Tweed’s Tammany Hall, helped these new immigrants, in exchange for votes of course.: Gave jobs or services Found housing Helped poor with gifts of clothing and food Helped when in trouble with the law Helped get schools, parks, and hospitals built in immigrant neighbor hoods Transition to America

21. Social Gospel Championed by preachers such as Walter Rauschenbusch and Washington Gladden They preached that socialism was the logical outcome of Christianity and were part of the movement known as Christian socialists, which had some appeal amongst the middle Class Jane Addams- Born into a wealthy family and part of the first generation of college-educated women, she purchased in Chicago, the Hull House. Jane Addams

22. Located in immigrant neighborhood of poor Greeks, Italians, Russians, and Germans, Hull House offered: Instruction in English Help in adjusting to American big-city life Child-care services for mothers And cultural activities Jane Addams was a wide range reformer and received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1831. In particularly, condemned war and poverty. Jane Addams

23. Other settlement houses were established in other big cities and became centers for social reform and activism. Hull House lobbied for ant-sweatshop law that protected women and prohibited child labor (led in this case by Florence Kelly, an advocate for the welfare of women, children, blacks, and consumers) Lillian Wald established Henry Street Settlement in New York. Work of Addams, Wald, and Kelly helped create the idea of the profession of Social Work. Other reformers

24. More than one million joined work force in 1890’s Mostly single, because it was considered taboo for wives and mothers to work. Jobs depended on race, class, and ethnicity: Black women- domestic jobs Native born white women- social workers, secretaries, department store clerks, and telephone operators Immigrant women- tended to cluster into certain industries, such as garment making for Jewish women. Women and Jobs

25. As the nativism was popular in the 40’s and 50’s with the arrival of Germans and Irish, the same thing happened beginning in the 1880’s with the New Immigrants Eastern and southern Europeans were looked upon as an exotic horde who were invading the United States and would eventually, with their large families, outnumber the Anglo-Saxons. Other fears and worries: Blamed new immigrants for the degradation of city governments in big cities Trade unions despised them because they were often strike breakers and also worked for starvation wages Feared them for their political views on socialism , communism, and anarchism. Anti-foreignism

26. APA American Protective Association Similar to the Know-Nothing Party Urged voting against Roman Catholic candidates In 1887, had million members Restrictive laws: 1882- banned criminals and convicts 1885- banned importation of immigrants already under contract 1917-literacy test Later laws prohibited insane, polygamists, prostitutes, alcoholics, anarchists, and diseased people Anti-foreignism Statue of Liberty, a gift from France, was erected in 1886. -Give me your tired, your poor Your huddled masses yearning to Breathe free The wretched refuse of your teeming shore

27. In some large cities, the Church and its members became more concerned with materialism than religion. Churches became a symbol of ones wealth and with the gospel of wealth preaching that God caused the righteous to prosper, many looked to make reforms in the Protestant church Hence, liberal Protestants, called for modest moral reforms: Rejected biblical literalism and rejected idea of original sin Active in the social gospel movement Sought to mediate between labor and capital, science and faith, religious and secular values. Helped protestants reconcile their religious faith with the modern, cosmopolitan way of thinking Church Reform

28. First, Roman Catholics by 1900 had 9 million adherents and was the largest denomination By 1890, Americans could choose between 150 different denominations, and two new ones: Salvation Army Church of Christian Science Led by Mary Eddy Baker Taught relief from discords and diseases through prayer. Wrote Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures (1875) YMCA and YWCA also became popluar at this time New religions

29. Darwin’s theory of evolution, and in particular, the idea of natural selection challenged the church. Especially the idea of “dogma of special creations” was challenged. Darwin’s theory greatly questioned God’s role in making humans special. Church’s response At first, simply rejected idea But later, split into two camps (conservative and accomadationists) Conservatives frankly dismissed Darwin Accomadationists reconciled science and religion by stating evolution was simply a higher revelation of the ways of God Darwin and the Church

30. Many started to understand that without free education, the government would suffer under people’s ignorance. Thus, it was a public good and beneficial for society to have compulsory schooling. During 1880’s and 1890’s, not only elementary schools grew, but the High School became more important Also, teacher training schools grew in size and importance and the idea of kindergarten took root in America Success of schools can be seen in falling illiterate rates: 1870: 20 percent 1900: 10.7 percent School Reform

31. Booker T. Washington Champion of black education in 1900, 44 percent of non-whites were illiterate Headed the Tuskegee institute in Alabama Known as an accomadationist, he did not directly challenge white supremacy, he avoided the issue of social equality He accepted segregation as long as the right to develop and improve existed the economic and educational resources of the black community Believed that economic independence would be the ticket to black political and civil rights George Washington Carver taught at Tuskegee, known for his achievements in creating new uses for the peanut, soy bean, and sweet potato. Black Activists

32. W.E.B. Dubois Challenged Booker T. Washington and his view on segregation. Believed that Booker’s approach would result in blacks never finding jobs more than manual labor and in a state of perpetual inferiority Earned P.H.D at Harvard Demanded complete equality for blacks, both economic and political and founded the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) Rejecting Washington’s approach of gradual integration, he demanded the most talented 10th percent of the black community be given immediate equality Self-exiled to Africa, he died there in 1963. Black Activists

33. As public schools increased, so did colleges More opportunities for women and blacks By 1880, a third of all college graduates were women Black universities set up during Reconstruction were flourishing, such as Howard University (D.C.), Hampton Institute (Virginia), and Atlanta University Growth of colleges attributed to the Morrill Act of 1862 Provided a grant of public lands to states to support higher education Many state universities formed out of these grants Hatch Act of 1887 extended Morrill Act, but also provided federal funds for the establishment of agricultural schools in connection with land-grants Both acts helped create hundreds of universites Land-Grant Universities and Research Colleges

34. In addition to the state public universities, many of the new millionaires supported the creation of private universities From 1878-1898, philanthropists gave away 150 million towards private schools Cornell University, Stanford and University of Chicago (Rockefeller) all started at this time Also, research/graduate schools opened up, which Johns Hopkins was the most noteworthy. This meant that Americans no longer had to go abroad to receive graduate or doctorate degrees. Private Universities

35. By 1900, there were 9,000 libraries in the U.S. In 1897, the Library of Congress opened its doors. It provided 13 acres of floor space and was the costliest building Andrew Carnegie contributed 60 million dollars to open libraries across America Libraries

36. Newspapers, being more commercialized, often toned down their scathing editorials to prevent antagonizing the advertisers Also, their was a rise in sensationalism. Stories of sex, scandal, and human-interest stories became more common and many complained that the press became presstitutes. Two tycoons emerged: Joseph Pulitzer- New York World William Randolph Hearst- San Francisco Examiner Both considered not 100% wholesome, what sold is what was printed. Had a flair for scandal and sensational rumor. Yellow Journalism The Press

37. Henry George Wrote Progress and Poverty He argued that property values grew due to the increase in demand from growing populations. He rationalized that a 100% tax on profits from these lands could solve the issue of income distribution and poverty Propertied class rejected idea, but George sold 3 million copies and lectured in U.S. and Britain on his idea Reform Writers

38. Edward Bellamy Published socialistic novel Looking Backward in 1888 Hero falls asleep and awakens in the year 2000. America is a socialistic paradise in which big business is nationalized to serve the public interest Bellamy sold over a million copies and some Bellamy Clubs sprang up across America Reform Writers

39. As literacy increased, so did book reading. Dime novels- usually about the West King of dime novels was Harlan Halsey, who wrote 650 novels, sometimes one in a day General Lewis Wallace Wrote Ben Hur- sold more 2 million copies. It was written to combat wave of skepticism due to Darwin’s theory Literature

40. Horatio Alger- sold 100 million copies of juvenile fiction in which he gave moral lessons Walt Whitman- poet who wrote Leaves of Grass. Famous American poet Emily Dickinson- became known after her death in 1886. Lived as a recluse and wrote thousand of short lyrics on paper. Writers

41. Wiring style that reflected the materialism of the industrial age. People turned to the world around them to find their muse and wrote of the human struggle and comedy. Famous realism writers: Kate Chopin-The Awakening- Spoke of feminist yearnings during the Gilded Age Mark Twain (Samuel Clemens)- gave us the term Gilded Age. Noted for his novels Tom Sawyer and Huck Finn. Noted for his gift of writing exclusively American novels in American dialect and describing frontier realism Realism

42. William Dean Howells- editor in chief of Atlantic Monthly. Wrote about everyday people and controversial social themes. Rise of Silas Lapham and A Hazard of New Fortunes Stephen Crane- wrote about the dark underside of life in American urban and industrial cities. Maggie: a girl of the Streets. Famous for Red Badge of Courage, story of a Civil war recruit. Henry James- novel Bostonians was one of the first to cover the burgeoning feminist movement. Wrote about women often and became known for his style called psychological realism Realism

43. Jack London- Call of the Wild. Nature writer, but later moved to other genres. Frank Norris- Wrote about the railroads and their stranglehold on California ranchers in The Octopus. Later wrote The Pit, describing the making and breaking of speculators in the Chicago wheat exchange. Two black authors, Paul Laurence Dunbar and Charles Chestnutt- brought a black realism to the literary scene. Using black dialect and folklore in their writings, they described the richness of southern black culture. Theodore Dreiser Wrote Sister Carrie, story of a poor working girl in Chicago and New York Realism

44. Victoria Woodhull and her sister advocated for free love (not what you think) and feminism. They represented a shock to “respectable” society with their periodical Woodhull and Claflin’s Weekly. Anthony Comstock represented the pure-minded Americans and he spoke out against the immoral activities in society. He was a self-appointed defender of sexual purity- opposite of Woodhull New role of women threatened traditionalists, and Woodhull’s ideas of divorce and more freedom for women was scary to many and seen as immoral. New Morality

45. Charlotte Perkins Gilman Wrote Women and Economics in 1898 Considered an important feminist book Called on women to abandon their dependent status and contribute to the community and society by more active role in the economy Rejected also the idea that women were physically inferior Feminists also continued to demand the right to vote. In 1890, the National American Woman Suffrage Association was formed. Two of the founders were legendary feminists Elisabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony New feminists reformers also come to the forefront near the turn of the century. Amongst them, Carrie Chapman Catt played a significant role. In suffrage movement, she de-emphasized the moral right and stressed the benefit of giving mothers and wives the right to vote in the ever changing urban environment. Women needed to be advocates for their families and could do so by voting. Feminism

46. New feminists reformers also come to the forefront near the turn of the century. Amongst them, Carrie Chapman Catt played a significant role. In suffrage movement, she de-emphasized the moral right and stressed the benefit of giving mothers and wives the right to vote in the ever changing urban environment. Women needed to be advocates for their families and could do so by voting. By attaching suffrage to traditional women’s roles, their was much gain in the suiffrage movement. Wyoming was first state to give right to vote in 1869 and other states granted some rights to property ownership and to vote by 1890 Feminism

47. James Whistler Portrait painter John Singer Sergeant Portrait painter self-exiled in England. American Artists

48. Mary Cassatt Exiled in Paris, was part of French impressionism movement. George Inness Landscape artist American Artists

49. Winslow Homer Known as one of America’s greatest painters. Known for his paintings of the ocean American Artists

50. Frank Lloyd Wright • 1869 – 1959 • “Prairie House”School of Architecture • “OrganicArchitecture” • Function follows form!