The Colonial Period

1. The Colonial Period ANTH 221: Peoples and Cultures of Mexico Kimberly Martin, Ph.D.

2. Goals of Colonizing • Wealth for European Royalty • Land, wealth for colonizers • Wealth for the Catholic Church • Converts for the Catholic Church

3. New Spain • Mexico was part of what was called New Spain

4. Two General Phases of Colonial Period • Era of conquistadores • Spain did not have resources to politically or militarily control colonies • Depended on conquistadores to provide money, troops, ships, weapons for conquest • Only leaders got the rewards – regular soldiers/sailors got little of what was promised • Conquistadores were rewarded with • 1/5 of all riches found in colonized area • Complete political control of the area they conquered • Indian servants • Encomiendas • Land grants

5. Two General Phases of Colonial Period • Era of Viceroyalties • Spain did not have resources to politically or militarily control colonies • Depended on conquistadores to provide money, troops, ships, weapons for conquest

6. Cortes • Ruled Mexico from 1521 – 1528 • 1522 - Appointed Governor and Captain General of Nueva Espana by Carlos V • Built Mexico City and other cities • Initiated the encomiendas • Worked on behalf of the Church • Developed mining, farming • Introduced new crops – sugar • Introduced African slaves to Mexico • Led an expedition to south as far as Honduras • Recalled to Spain in 1528 • Returned to Mexico with title of Marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca • Lived in Cuernavaca on huge hacienta • Returned to Spain again and died in 1547 • His remains were returned to Mexico for burial in Mexico City.

7. Ruling Bodies in New Spain • Cortes – Governor and Captain General of Nuevo Espana 1522 – 1528 • Council of the Indies - had power over all New World colonies 1524 • Audencia was a panel of judges who had a great deal of power/influence in the New World – led by corrupt Nuno de Guzman 1527 • 62 Viceroys over 275 years, the first being Antonio de Mendoza – 1535 - 1810

8. Indigenous Populations • Estimates of population decline after conquest up to 90% • Disease • War • Hunger • Creation of clearly defined racial classes • Forced Labor • Repartimiento/cuatequil – each adult male had to contribute 45 days of labor per year • Debt Peonage – Indios were paid in advance for labor at a rate that they could never repay – debt was inherited from one generation to another, binding laborers to haciendas/encomienderos

9. The Caste System • Peninsulares (Born in Spain) • Criollos (7/8 or more European) • Castizos (3/4 European) • Mestizos (1/2 European) • Indio • Negro (slaves of African ancestry • Peninsulare + Indio = Mestizo • Peninsulare + Mestizo = Castizo • Peninsulare + Castizo = Criollo

10. Exports to Spain • Silver - largest exporter of silver still along with Peru • Cochineal - second largest export from the new world. • Tobacco • Hides (Olives and grapes were not allowed because of fear of competition for Spanish producers)

12. Global Trade • Acapulco and Veracruz were the only ports allowed to operate • Trade from the Spanish East Indies to Acapulco across the Pacific, overland to Veracruz, then across the Atlantic to Spain

13. Encomiendas • A system of ownership of indigenous people • Spaniards were given the rights over a certain number of indigenous people • Right to demand labor and tribute from them • Responsibility to protect them from raiding indigenous groups • Responsibility to convert them to Catholicism • Responsibility to teach them Spanish and acculturate them to European culture. • This did not include land directly, but indirectly control over the people meant control over their land • Land without encomiendas was worthless

14. The Church in New Spain • First priests came in 1523 • Franciscans were the first missionaries • Dominicans, Augustinians followed • Orders established themselves regionally with distinctive architecture, organization • With the decimation of the populations, they abandoned many of their monasteries • Two Phases of Church activity

15. Church as Enculturator • Missions were built across the less dense parts of New Spain • Native codices/books burned • Religious rituals banned –especially human sacrifice • Native priests and teachers persecuted • Temples, statues demolished and European buildings and churches built on top of them with stone taken from indigenous sites • Foods associated with religious ritual banned • Indigenous names replaced with Spanish names

16. Phase One • 1519 until 1555: Missionaries had totally independent power from Church • Indios considered heathens rather than infidels • Were frequently advocates for indigenous folk against secular powers • Conversion was more important than orthodoxy • Studied and recorded indigenous languages • Translated religious teaching into indigenous languages • Bernardino de Sahagun’s complete history of life and religion in Mexico

17. La Virgin de Guadalupe • Conversion was syncretized rather than full conversion. • Virgin of Guadalupe 1531 • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_k8E-f92sr0 • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RC0v9xZktEw&feature=fvst

18. Phase Two • After 1555: Church brought all under the control of Bishops • In reaction to Protestant challenges in Europe orthodoxy became the focus • Indios not considered capable of education or of becoming priests • Spanish was substituted for native languages • Focus on orthodox Catholic practices rather than syncretism • However, syncretism was firmly established by this time • Church obtained land grants, encomiendas and wealth from its operations in New Spain

19. In the End . . . • Pensulares and Criollos controlled virtually all the farmable land in haciendas/encomiendas. • Tribute from others meant most resources were funneled to upper class • Forced labor was in many cases almost like slave labor • Wealth was siphoned off to Europeans in Mexico and to Spain. • The Church was an extremely powerful, wealthy and influential force in New Spain