Adaptive Significance of Sex

1. Adaptive Significance of Sex By: Jordan Cohen, Amanda Blankinship, Kaitlan Hughes

2. Sex is Silly • Why reproduce sexually? • Energy expensive • Hazardous • Unforeseen complications • Introduction of diseases

3. Asexuality is Cool • Benefits of reproducing asexually • A good number of asexually reproducing organisms can also reproduce sexually. • Rapid population growth • Production of more offspring per parent • Genetically identical

4. Is it a He or a She? • Both! • Aphid species ( Plant lice) Reproduction by means of parthenogenesis; During spring and summer months populations are 100% dominated by asexual females. Fall populations make the change to produce sexually reproductive males and females, and out come a new cycle of parthenogenetic spring/ summer females!

5. Sexual vs. AsexualJohn Maynard Smith’s null model In the same population if both modes of reproduction are possible, will one mode replace the other? First things first: -In order to use this model two assumptions must be met • A female’s reproductive mode does not affect the number of offspring she can make. • A female’s reproductive mode does not affect the probability that her offspring will survive.

6. Asexual take over! • If these assumptions are met, asexual populations theoretically will dominate. - asexual females reproduce and by the 3rd generation produce twice as many individuals. - ideally, in a population of both modes asexuality should dominate over time, why doesn’t this occur in real populations?

7. What benefits allow sex to stay? Simple biological facts.. Violation of assumptions - first assumption does depend on whether the reproductive female is sexual or asexual. - violation of the second assumption holds great importance of the advantage of sex.

8. Dunbrack and colleagues suggests.. Second assumption is incorrect, at least by means of their experiement.. R.L. Dunbrack used flour beetles (Tribolium castaneum) in mixed populations of black and red T. castaneum, distinguishing between “sexual” and “asexual” beetles. - Researchers introduced a challenge to the beetles environment by adding fluctuating amounts of insecticide to the flour they lived in. This was done to observe an evolution of insecticide resistant generations. - Eight replicates of this experiment were conducted, with increasing amounts of insecticide.

9. Results • Control cultures correlated with Smith’s model. • Experimental cultures asexual strand appeared to begin dominating, but within roughly 20 generations the evolving sexual strand recovered, and eventually eliminated the asexual strand. • Speed of elimination depending on insecticide concentrations.

10. Sex in Populations Means Genetic Recombination -Sex is reproduction involving: 1.Meiosis with crossing-over 2.Matings between unrelated individuals -Together, genetic recombination occurs The placement of allele copies on chromosomes or within gametes that are different from the multilocus genotypes they once belonged to in a previous generation

11. Otto and Lenormand • Selection and genetic recombination • Experiments in which populations were exposed to artificial selection • Looked for a degree of change in genetic recombination during meiosis • Found an increase in change • Figure 8.19

12. Sex Is Beneficial -Drift theory of sex Asexual vs. sexual -Muller’s ratchet  H.J. Muller: linkage disequilibrium is created by drift -Finite asexual population

13. Asexual Populations Accumulate Deleterious Mutations

14. Sex Breaks the Ratchet • Genetic load- Reduction in the mean fitness of a population due to the presence of deleterious alleles • Sexual reproduction

15. Muller’s Ratchet Haigh- mathematical model of Muller’s ratchet Population size Mutation rate

16. Andersson and Hughes Salmonella typhimurium 444 cultures 1,700 generations

17. A Bacterial Population Subjected to Periodic Bottlenecks 5, or 1%, had significantly reduced fitness

18. Lambert and Moran • Tested Muller’s ratchet in nature • Used 9 species of bacteria living in insect cells (obligate endosymbionts) • Focused on stability of rRNA genes • Found consistence with Muller’s ratchet • 15-25% less stable

19. Sex by Drift Counteracting the ratchet Keightley and Otto- sex beneficial Sex over the long term Asexual females in a sexual environment Sexual vs. asexual

20. Selection Imposed by a Changing Environment Can Make Sex Beneficial • In a constant environment asexual reproduction is a better fit than sexual reproduction • In a changing environment sexual reproduction is a better fit than asexual reproduction

21. Red Queen Hypothesis: Evolutionary arms race between hosts and parasites. Parasites and hosts struggle. Parasites select in favor some multilocus host genotypes in some generations and others in other generations

22. Curtis Lively: Examined if parasites select in favor of sex in hosts Studied snails (Potamopyrgus antipodarum) hosts to parasitic trematode worms Sexual and asexual females Worms castrate hosts

23. Lively’s Hypothesis: If snails and trematodes select in favor of sex in snails then sexual snails should have a higher trematode infection rate.

26. Lively’s Experiment Took samples of snails from lakes and determined their sex and if they were infected

27. Results Higher proportion of females are sexual in heavily parasitic populations Results match prediction

30. References • http://www.indiana.edu/~curtweb/Research/Red_Queen%20hyp.html • http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:x_uiDSs2pAYJ:faculty.plattsburgh.edu/neil.buckley/Evolution/Chapter8a.ppt+John+Maynard+Smith+null+model+of+reproduction&cd=6&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us&client=safari