Taken from: web.mit/persci/people/adelson/checkershadow_proof.html

1. Taken from: http://web.mit.edu/persci/people/adelson/checkershadow_proof.html Radical Interactive Demos on Lightness Perception: http://web.mit.edu/persci/gaz/

2. Good Morning!! Chapter 9 Memory Prepare to Exercise It!!

3. Memory 1.  Describe memory in terms of information processing, and distinguish between sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. 2.  Distinguish between automatic and effortful processing, and discuss the importance of rehearsal. 3.  Explain the importance of meaning, imagery, and organization in the encoding process.

4. Memory Grouchy Sniffy Wishful Puffy Dumpy Sneezy Lazy Pop Grumpy Bashful Cheerful Teach Shorty Nifty Happy Shy Doc Wheezy Stubby Gabby Dopey Droopy Fearful Sleepy Smiley Jumpy Hopeful

5. Memory Sleepy Dopey Grumpy Sneezy Happy Doc Bashful <<in order of most to least likely to recall>>

6. Memory • Memory – any indication that learning has persisted over time • Alt. Def. – process by which we recollect prior exp., info. and skills learned in the past. •  memories are personally constructed • why two people can experience the same event and have totally different memories of it

7. Memory • Flashbulb Memory • a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event • Eg. JFK death • 9-11 Incident

8. Memory • 3 Types-- • 1.Episodic Memory- mem of specific events stored in a sequential series of events (last time you went on a date) • Flashbulb is a type of Episodic • 2.Semantic/ Declarative Memory-general knowledge of the world, stored as facts, meanings, or categories rather than sequentially. • 3.Procedural Memory-mem of skills and how to perform them. Might be sequential but difficult to describe in words; things you are not likely to forget <<skill memory>>

9. Memory • Memory as Information Processing • similar to a computer • Encoding - write to file • Storage - save to disk • Retrieval - read from disk • Encoding • the processing of information into the memory system • i.e., extracting meaning

10. Three Stage Processing Model(Atkinson and Shiffrin 1968) • Memories are created thru 3 stages: • 1. sensory memory – the immediate, initial recording of sensory info. into the memory system • 2.  short-term memory (working memory) activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the info. is stored or forgotten • 3. long-term memory – the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system 360153 360153

11. Encoding Effortful Automatic Encoding: Getting Information In

12. Encoding: Getting Information In • Automatic Processing- unconscious encoding of incidental information such as time, space, and frequency, and of well-learned information such as word meanings • ex. -You may know exactly where in your notes that a test answer is even though you can’t remember the answer. -Retracing steps to find keys. • occurs with little or no effort and without interfering with our thinking of other things (parallel processing) • also very difficult to turn off

13. Encoding: Getting Information In effortful processing- encoding that requires attention and conscious effort • one method of effortful processing is rehearsal <<conscious repetition to maintain info in consciousness and encode it for storage>> ex. 370-9797 Even after we learn material additional rehearsal (overlearning) increases retention. >>practice(effortful processing) makes perfect when trying to learn novel verbal information

14. Selective Attention to important or novel information Sensory input Encoding External events Sensory memory Short-term memory Long-term memory Encoding Retrieving A Simplified Memory Model

15. Encoding Effortful Automatic Encoding: Getting Information In

16. Encoding • Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) used nonsense syllables • TUV ZOF GEK WAV • more times practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2 • found that the more frequently the list was repeated, the fewer repetitions it took to relearn the syllables later • amount remembered depends on time spent learning • even if you know the material additional rehearsal increases retention <<ALSO GAVE US THE FORGETTING CURVE>>

17. Time in minutes taken to relearn list on day 2 20 15 10 5 0 8 16 24 32 42 53 64 Number of repetitions of list on day 1 Encoding

18. Encoding • Spacing Effect • We retain info better when rehearsal is distributed over time • distributed practice yields better long- term retention than massed practice • Those who learn quickly forget quickly • Evol perspec: events that are spaced out are more likely to occur Next --Activity: Recalling the US Presidents

19. 90 Percentage of words recalled 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Position of word in list Encoding: Serial Position Effect Serial Position Effect--tendency to recall best the last items in a list, combines the primacy effect and recency effect

20. Encoding: NEXT-IN-LINE EFFECT • next-in-line-effect-when people go around the room saying their names, their poorest memory is for what was said by the person just before them

21. Encoding • Semantic Encoding-encoding of meaning, including meaning of words • Acoustic Encoding-encoding of sound, especially sound of words • Visual Encoding- encoding of picture images

22. Encoding- Craik & Tulving Study on Levels of Processing (deep v shallow – p 357 text)

23. Encoding • Activity: SRE • The Self-Reference Effect • We have excellent recall for information we can relate to ourselves • >>find personal meaning in what you are studying; make it relevant to yourself for deeper processing and better retention • Is a type of semantic encoding

24. Levels of Processing Model • Levels of Processing Model -An alternative way to think about memory • This theory explains why we remember what we do by examining how deeply the memory was thought about. Memories are neither short nor long-term but rather: • DEEPLY(ELABORATELY) OR SHALLOWLY (MAINTENANCE) PROCESSED • Explains how context helps memory • >>can remember a story better than just a sequence of events

25. Encoding • Imagery • mental pictures • a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding (hi-imagery words easier to recall than low: fire, cigarette, typewriter v. void, inherent, process) • Mnemonics (Gordon Bower) • memory aids • especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices Mnemonic Demonstration:

26. Organizing Information for Encoding: Mnemonics • Method of loci • Used by ancient Greek scholars and orators to remember length passages/ speeches • Associating each place with a visual representation of the to-be remembered topic Peg-Word System • One-Bun, Two-Shoe

27. Organizing Information for Encoding: Chunking • Chunking • organizing items into familiar, manageable units • like horizontal organization--1776149218121941 • often occurs automatically • use of acronyms • HOMES--Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior

28. Encoding (automatic or effortful) Meaning (semantic Encoding) Imagery (visual Encoding) Organization Chunks Hierarchies Organizing Information for Encoding: Hierarchies • Hierarchies • complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories

29. 9-3 Storage & Retrieval Objectives--Storage: 4.  Describe the limited nature of sensory and short-term memory. 5.  Describe the capacity and duration of long-term memory, and discuss the biological changes that may underlie memory formation and storage. 6.  Distinguish between implicit and explicit memory, and identify the different brain structures associated with each. Retrieval: 7.  Contrast recall, recognition, and relearning measures of memory. 8.  Describe the importance of retrieval cues and the impact of environmental contexts and internal emotional states on retrieval. .

30. Storage:Retaining Information • Iconic Memory (PsychSim Module) • a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli • a photographic or picture image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second • George Sperling (1960); p362 text; PsychSim Ch9 • Echoic Memory • momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli\ • Lasts longer than iconic: 3-4 sec • Eidetic Memory • True photographic memory – extremely rare STM Test

31. Percentage who recalled consonants 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 Time in seconds between presentation of contestants and recall request (no rehearsal allowed) Storage:Short-Term Memory • Short-Term Memory (STM) • limited in duration and capacity • “magical” number 7+/-2 (George Miller) • Better for #’s than letters • Better for info heard than images seen • Lasts 20s or less • Can retain 4 Chunks

32. Storage:Long-Term Memory • How does storage work? • Karl Lashley (1950) • rats learn maze/ lesion cortex/test memory • Found <<Memory NOT Localized>>> • Synaptic changes • Long-term Potentiation (LTP) <<neural basis for learning>> • Hippocampus forms new synapses or strengthens existing ones as learning occurs • increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; increased sensitivity of sending neuron; increased receptor sites on receiving neuron

33. Storage:Long-Term Memory • Strong EMOTIONS make for stronger memories • some stress hormones boost learning and retention • Inc glucose • <<but>> prolonged stress corrodes neural connections & shrinks hippocampus (stress hormones can also block old memories – pub speaking)

34. Storage:Long-Term Memory • Amnesia--the loss of memory >Retrograde Amn-can’t recall events before onset >Anterograde Amn-can’t form/recall memories of events after onset • Amnesia patient can learn but has no explicit memory of it >Where’s Waldo Exp >Can be Classically Conditioned but have no explicit memory of it

35. Storage:Long-Term Memory • Explicit Memory • memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare • also called declarative memory • hippocampus--neural center in limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage • Implicit Memory • retention independent of conscious recollection • also called procedural/skill memory • Cerebellum-implicit stored here via brainstem (remember Eye-blink Classically Conditioned Rabbit)

36. Storage:Long-Term Memory • Amygdala • Involved in emotional memories • If damaged, patient/ organism doesn’t have fear conditioning • If hippo damaged & amygdala intact, have fear response but don’t remember why (ie. French patient whose Dr. shocked her hand on bottom of p 368-369)

37. Types of long-term memories Explicit (declarative) With conscious recall Implicit (nondeclarative) Without conscious recall Personally experienced events (“episodic memory”) Dispositions- classical and operant conditioning effects Facts-general knowledge (“semantic memory”) Skills-motor and cognitive Storage: Long-Term Memory Subsystems This chart is on p 368

38. Hippocampus Storage:Long-Term Memory • MRI scan of hippocampus (in red) • Lt Hippo damage – memory of verbal info suffers • Rt Hippo dam – mem of visual design/ spatial loc suffers

39. Retrieval: Getting Information Out • Recall • measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier • as on a fill-in-the blank test • (DEC W/ AGE) • Recognition • Measure of memory in which the person has only to identify items previously learned • as on a multiple-choice test (CONST W/ AGE)

40. Retrieval/ Retrieval Cues • Relearning • memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material a second time • Priming • activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory • Tastes, smells, sights, moods can be retrieval cues that “prime” memories

41. Percentage of words recalled 40 30 20 10 0 Water/ land Land/ water Water/ water Land/ land Different contexts for hearing and recall Same contexts for hearing and recall Retrieval Cues-Context Effects

42. Retrieval Cues • REST DREAM • SNORE SLUMBER • SOUND NIGHT • TIRED WAKE • BED EAT • COMFORT AWAKE

43. Retrieval Cues • Deja Vu(French)--already seen • Associations can cause a person to feel that an event has occurred when it really has not. • "I've experienced this before." • Mood-congruent Memory • tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood • memory, emotions, or moods serve as retrieval cues • State-dependent Memory • what is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk, or depressed) can more easily be remembered when in same state • Mood inf how we interpret event eg. interp of look as glare (dep) v. interest (happy)

44. Retrieval Cues • After learning to move a mobile by kicking, infants had their learning reactivated most strongly when retested in the same rather than a different context (Butler & Rovee-Collier, 1989).

45. 9-3 Forgetting & Constructive Memory Forgetting: 9.  Explain why the capacity to forget can be beneficial, and discuss the role of encoding failure and storage decay in the process of forgetting. 10.  Explain what is meant by retrieval failure, and discuss the effects of interference and motivated forgetting on retrieval. Constructive Memory 11.  Describe the evidence for the constructive nature of memory and the impact of imagination and leading questions on eyewitness recall. 12.  Discuss the difficulties in discerning true memories from false ones and the reliability of children’s eyewitness recall. 13.  Discuss the controversy over reports of repressed and recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse.

46. Forgetting • 4 types/ Reasons • As Encoding Failure • Storage Decay (Decay Theory) • Interference • Motivated Forgetting (Repression)

47. Attention External events Sensory memory Short- term memory Long- term memory Encoding Encoding Encoding failure leads to forgetting Forgetting • Forgetting as encoding failure • Information never enters the long-term memory • Age effects: As age inc, encoding dec – Brain less responsive w/ age

48. Forgetting • Forgetting as encoding failure • Which penny is the real thing? • See p 378 in text

49. Percentage of list retained when relearning 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25 30 Time in days since learning list Forgetting-Storage Decay • Forgetting Curve/ Law- Ebbinghaus forgetting curve over 30 days-- initially rapid, then levels off with time

50. 100% 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Percentage of original vocabulary retained Retention drops, then levels off 1 3 5 9½ 14½ 25 35½ 49½ Time in years after completion of Spanish course Forgetting Curve<<rem Ebbinghaus gave us this>> • The forgetting curve for Spanish learned in school