Chapter 2: The Heritage of Physical Education, Sport, and Fitness in the United States.

1. Chapter 2:The Heritage of Physical Education, Sport, and Fitness in the United States. HPHE 1500 Dr. Ayers

2. Greece (500 – 300 BC) Roman Empire (300 BCE – 476 BC) Europe UNITED STATES

3. The Greek influence (500-300 BC) • Male dominated society; only men had access to education. • Physical prowess was much sought after; games key part of life. • Physical training and sport also prepared military for defense against outside intruders. • Greeks were creators of philosophy, music, etc. • Sparta (a military dominated city-state) typified the use of stringent selection of children for lifelong physical training.

4. The Roman influence (300-476 BC) • Military training critical to conquering other civilizations. • Obedience, discipline, & physical prowess were key goals of military training. • Its sporting events mirrored what we see today: Entertainment, large venues, betting. • Women were less marginalized. • Romans were adopters of cultural practices. • The empire’s demise also lessened the perceived importance of sport and fitness .

5. Discussion Question How was the Roman influence different from the Greeks?

6. The Birth of a Profession - 1885 • William G. Anderson noted the lack of support (i.e., preparation programs, literature) for “gymnastics teachers” (aka, physical educators) • Organized the first ever professional meeting, that spawned the Association for the Advancement of Physical Education (n=60).

7. The pre-1885 Sport & fitness scene Some sample marquee developments: (see also Box 2.1) • 1825 -1st Physical Education teacher: Charles Beck • 1827 -First competitive football game • 1837 -Catherine Beecher founded Western Female Inst • 1839 -First teacher training program founded • 1848 -“Turnverein” club (German) formed • 1851 -First YMCA in America (character edu & PA) • 1859 -First intercollegiate baseball game

8. The pre-1885 Sport & fitness Context • A young, conservative nation • Strong Puritan values prohibiting play & exercise • 1879 - Dudley Sargent, Ast. Prof. @ Harvard • Mid 1800s: Exercise & fitness become valued & commonly accepted . . . Yet Sport emerges later! • Sport played mostly in colleges – student driven

9. Context for an emerging Profession • Declining opposition to sport & exercise. • Large-scale immigration to the new world. • Industrialization (produced wealth). • Urbanization (necessitated the dev’t of other acts). • Transportation (rail) & communication (radio & TV). • Education – Free universal education for ALL. • Intellectual climate (e.g., Darwin, Freud, Marx).

10. Battle of the “Systems” • Multiple approaches to formal Gymnastics hailed from Europe (e.g., Germany & Sweden). • Formal, prescribed exercises done in unison as group • European climate=Nationalism & military preparation • Faculty Psychology=Perceived cognitive benefits of exercise • 1889 Boston Conference • Focus: Purposes of Physical Education and how to achieve these

11. Emergence of Organized Sport (late 1800’s) • Post-Civil War period: Sport games gradually become standardized (i.e., institutionalized) . . . They “come of age” (see list on pg. 33) • Two-way influence between Europe & USA in the emergence of different sports. • Women played key role in Sport’s emergence in the USA (e.g., Basketball and Volleyball). • 1896: First Modern Olympic Games: P. de Coubertin proposes Olympism philosophy (edu program of peace & cultural understanding to unite modern world)

12. Sport on College Campuses • Rapid rise in men’s college sport (fr. 1850 to 1900) • Initially, mostly student driven (despite frequent opposition from faculty and administration) • As sport became more central, abuses increased which made faculty support and oversight necessary • Women’s intercollegiate sports were controlled • by faculty from the start, ergo slower growth & • fewer abuses.

13. Roots of abuse in College Sport • “Win at all cost” mentality (lack of gentleman class) • Absence of any sense of honor, fair play, and respect for rules (as taught to young British men in schools) • Abuse occurred relative to eligibility and athlete treatment by universities (pg. 36 example) • Examples: Playing for multiple colleges, getting paid to play. NEEDED . . . FACULTY OVERSIGHT

14. Faculty oversight of College Sport • Emergence of Athletic Conferences (e.g., Western Conference). • Increased institutional control over college sport. • Rules were made for eligibility, transfer of students, hiring and retaining coaches, etc. • Women’s college sport was overseen from the start, thus experienced fewer abuses (e.g., Blanche Trilling forms Athl. Conf. of American College Women in 1917)

15. The New Physical Education • 1891: Physical Education recognized as curricular field for schools (assoc w/ Education vs Medicine) • Thomas Wood argues Physical Education’s role toward complete education (pg. 37) • New agenda heavily promoted by: T. Wood R. Cassidy L. Gulick C. Hetherington

16. Physical Education . . .The Profession (1900 – 1920) • Embrace of other movements: Dance, Playgrounds, Camping, College Intramurals, & Recreation • See Box 2.3 (pg. 39) for evolution of our organization • Emergence of a Sport culture. • 1904: American Academy of Physical Education.

17. Physical Education: The Golden Age (Post-World War I) • USA comes out of WWI as an international power with a strong economy & an emerging middle class • Interest in sport grows rapidly (radio and cars aid this) • Continued discrimination against African- Americans results in formation of separate leagues

18. Which is it? . . . “OF the Physical” “THROUGH the Physical” (represents the “New Physical Education”) C.H. McCloy J.F. Williams Development of the body for health & skill Contribute to mental, social, and emotional development

19. Second-generation leaders (“through the Physical”) Jesse Feiring Williams (Teachers College) Jay B. Nash (NYU) VS. Charles H. McCloy The “OF” vs. “THROUGH” continues even today

20. Discussion Question What is education OF the physical versus THROUGH the physical?

21. The Science of Physical Education… Beginnings (1920’s) Hitchcock & Sargent’s emphasis on measurement & prescriptive exercises based on test data establ. American gymnastic systems on science 1924: The first doctoral programs established 1930: Research Quarterly’s first issue published Increased focus on Research was essential to ensuring legitimacy in Universities & Colleges

22. Access and Equity . . . Not such a Golden Age REMEMBER: Women not yet allowed to vote . . . Pioneer women in Physical Education: • Delphine Hanna • Ethel Perrin • Jessie Bancroft • Amy Morris Homans • Elizabeth Burchenal • Blanche Trilling

23. Access and Equity . . . Not such a Golden Age REMEMBER: African-Americans still lacked full constitutional rights… Colleges that accepted black students: • Springfield College • Oberlin College • Sargent School for Women

24. Consolidation & Specialization (1930 – present) Status Quo APEA firmly established as THE umbrella org. for: -physical educators -recreationists -sport administrators -fitness experts -health educators Battle between education OF/THROUGH the physical clearly won by THROUGH advocates Physical education clearly established w/in education

25. Cultural & Global Context (1930 – 1940) 1929 -Wall Street collapse >> the Great Depression Changes in economic and social systems, FDR 1932: 1935-Social Security Act, and the Wagner Act (unions) Work Progress Administration (WPA): facility building Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC): opened camps National Youth Administration (NYA): p-time work for HS Ss Effects of World War I, Russian Revolution, and the Great Depression contribute to rise of Germany’s and Italy’s quest for expansion and influence . . . World War II (1939-1945) Automobile, radio (and now TV) also influence the evolution of sport, fitness and physical education

26. Sport, Fitness, and Physical Education - The Depression Years • Significant cutbacks in funding for sport • Spectatorship drops, while participation increases (Softball) • Participation more democratized (across SES levels) • Federal & private programs boost participation (i.e., building of facilities and programs targeting youth – Little League Baseball)

27. APEA>>AAHPE’s membership actually increases throughout Depression • NEA institutes Physical Education Teacher Education program evaluation • AAHPE becomes department in NEA • 1938: The Physical Education Curriculum (3-6 week block plan format)

28. Sport, Fitness, and Physical Education - World War II Years • WWII shifts focus back to physical fitness, including • in-school Physical Education programs • War Training camps included extensive sport, fitness and recreation facilities and programs • War Years precipitated the research specialization in Physical Education that would explode in the 1960s as the Kinesiology discipline movement • Emergence of Adapted Physical Education

29. Sport, Fitness, and Physical Education - Post-World War II Years • Cultural & societal shifts: > Birth of “suburbs” (housing demands) > Higher education enrollment soars (G.I. Bill) > The Baby Boom • Expansion of Sport through the growth of spectator sports: > Growth in the number of teams in professional sport > Golf becomes a sport for the general public > Olympics return in 1948 in London > Growth in collegiate sports, w/ increased media coverage

30. School Physical Education in the post-war years: > Sports and games become more dominant > Emergence of “lifetime sports” in the curriculum > BUT . . . . • 1954: > JOHPER: Minimum Muscular Fitness Tests in School Children (Kraus & Hirschland, 1954) 60% USA failed > President’s Council on Youth Fitness formed (1958) > Physical fitness focus renewed in school programs

31. Mid 1950’s and on • Social and cultural shifts: > Generational clashes in the 50’s and 60’s > 1954 - “Brown v. Board of Education” (defeated sep but =) > 1956 - Civil Rights movement – Rosa Parks, MLK, Jr. > 1957 - Sputnik launch in USSR Influence on Sport, Fitness and Physical Education?

32. More social and cultural shifts: > 1962-The Silent Spring (Carlson) (pesticides, chemicals) > 1965-Consumer movement – Ralph Nader Unsafe @ Any Speed > 1972-Title IX: Equal access to sport for girls & women > 1975 – PL94-142 (rights of people w/ disabilities)

33. Explosion of women’s sport • Emergence of outdoor / wilderness sports • Racial integration in sports at all levels • Youth sports expand in both number of sports and participants Influence on Sport, Fitness and Physical Education?

34. Fitness Renaissance and the Aerobics Era • Fitness becomes “fashionable” in the 60’s and 70’s . . . the thing to do  • Private sector grabs on to it (driven by economics) • Kenneth Cooper publishes Aerobics and established the Cooper Aerobics Institute (www.cooperinst.org) • Increasing scientific support for adopt & value a physically active lifestyle across entire population (AAHPERD major goal)

35. Physical Education since the 1950’s • Lifetime sports gain place in school programs • Cooperative games emerged as a counter-movement against the strong push for competition (Sputnik) • “Discipline of Physical Education” > Knowing as well as doing

36. New philosophies and approaches emerge: > Adventure Education > Movement Education (fr. England) > Social & Personal Responsibility Model (Hellison, 1984) > Sport Education (Siedentop, Hastie & van der Mars, 1994, 2004) > Teaching Games for Understanding (Almond, Bunker & Thorpe, 1983) • Title IX . . . Opportunities and challenges: > More equal access for both boys and girls > Having to share budgets and facilities

37. Academic Discipline Movement “ I suggest that there is an increasing need for the organization and study of the academic discipline herein called physical education.” (Franklin Henry, 1964, p. 32) • Subdisciplines: Biomechanics Sport Psychology Kinesiology Sport Sociology Motor Control Sport History Motor Learning Sport Philosophy • AAHPERD is the primary professional & academic organization (see Box 2.5, pg. 54)

38. Strong influence on the Physical Education curriculum in Colleges and Universities: > Specialized Graduate programs emerge > Knowledge gained via research becomes prominent in undergrad teacher preparation courses (i.e., courses in Ex. Phys, Motor Learning, Sport Psych, Biomechanics, etc.) • A backlash from Physical Education Teacher Education (PETE) leaders: > Study of human movement vs. human movement itself and the development of teaching skills > Recognized the need to engage in research on teaching- learning processes in school physical education

39. NAMES TO KNOW: • William Anderson (organized 1st professional meeting of AAPE, became 1st Secretary of what is now AAHPERD) • Edward Hitchcock (1st President of AAPE, also Dir., Dept of Hygiene & Physical Culture @ Amherst College) • Dudley Sargent (founded 1st college dept of PE) • Springfield College, Oberlin College, Sargent Normal School of Physical Training (roots of PE) • Amy Morris Homans (Boston Conference)

40. NAMES TO KNOW2: • Rosalind Cassidy(published The New Physical Education) • Jay B. Nash (advocated “through” the physical) • Jesse Feiring Williams (advocated “through” the physical) • Thomas Wood (advocated “through” the physical) • Clark Hetherington (advocated “through” the physical) • C.H. McCloy (advocated “OF” the physical)

41. NAMES TO KNOW3: • Delphine Hanna (developed 1st PETE program) • Luther Halsey Gulick (early foundational leader in PE) • Mabel Lee (1st female Pres. of APEA)

42. Find a Friend… What are three key things that you learned today? What is something you had never heard of that matters to your future as a Physical Educator?