The Reformation and the Bible

1. The Reformation and the Bible Week Eight: Theology in Context

2. Session Overview • Lecture • Examine the myth of Protestant Origins • Consider some contexts behind the Reformation • Outline some aspects of the Reformation • Consider the Reformation as Reformations • Highlight some main themes in Reformation thought • Overview some main Reformers and their differences • Seminar • Examine justification through faith • Explore some issues concerning scripture and tradition in Protestant and Catholic thought

3. The Myth of Protestant Origins: • Or, how the Reformation didn’t happen • In the midst of Catholic Europe • A unified monolithic religious Christendom centred around unswerving loyalty to the Pope in Rome • A monk is thinking:

4. Hi! My name’s Martin Luther. And I’ve just come to a unique realization! The teachings of the Church have departed from the Bible. I must go and tell everyone!

5. So he marches

6. from his monastery

7. to the castle church

8. in Wittenburg (Germany)

9. and posts his complaints

10. on the door

11. Hi! It’s me, Martin Luther, again. And I’ve just started the Protestant Reformation. Launching a devastating attack on the power and authority of the Pope and the entire Roman Catholic Church!

12. However, this is not what happened… • …so, if that didn’t happen what did? • Martin Luther did not walk from monastery to castle church • He did write the famous ’95 Theses’ but gave them by hand to fellow academics

13. However: • Luther didn’t want to attack Rome’s authority • Luther wanted reform not (yet) Reformation • Luther’s theses intended only to start debate on indulgences (see later) • “It is a mystery to me how my theses… were spread to so many places. They were meant exclusively for our academic circle here.” (Luther, M., letter, quoted in Miles, M., The Word Made Flesh, p. 244) • So what turned a minor provincial debating paper into the schism that has split Western Christianity till today?

14. Some Contexts of the Reformation • Into (early) modernity • The state of the church • War and plague • Calls for reform • Renaissance and Humanism • Other factors • Luther

15. Into modernity • Medieval world > early modern world • feudalism > capitalism • Break down of old order and established hierarchies • loose federation of small states > powerful centralized nations • Princes want greater autonomy and freedom • new forms of government: e.g. Republics, absolute monarchy • Moves away from ecclesiastical power • The political world of medieval Europe is passing… • … does a new political sensibility need a new religious sensibility?

16. The State of the Medieval Church • Heresy • Numerous heretical groups/ movements • Papal crises • C 14th: 2 rival popes • Council of Pisa 1409 • Result = 3 popes • Council of Constance 1417 • Implications: • councils more powerful than popes • congregation of believers possess greater authority • Debt • taxes • sell church positions • spiritual benefits, esp. indulgences (to which we shall return) • Corruption • multiple positions (simony) • Savonarola • minor clergy in poverty • The Clergy • Ignorance • Diocese in C 16th England: • 168 of 311 country clergy could not recite the Ten Commandments • some could not even say who had composed the Lord’s Prayer • Immorality • Diocese of Constance: 1,500 illegitimate children/ year

17. War and Plague • Ravaged Europe C 13th & 14th • 100 Years War • Black Death • instability and doubt • The afterlife • Judgement • purgatory • apocalyptic expectations • Joachim of Fiore • “The end of the world is nigh”

18. Calls for Reform • Luther was not the first (or last) reformer: • Other (important) reformers: • Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa (fifteenth century) • trying to reform corruption - pope’s ambassador to Germany • John Wycliff (1329-1384) • More on him in due course… • John Hus (1373-1415) • Rector of the University of Prague • Influenced by Wycliffe • Council of Constance • safe-conduct from Holy Roman Emperor • burnt at the stake – heretic • Irony • never regarded himself as a heretic

19. ‘The Morning Star of the Reformation’ • John Wycliff (1329-1384) • Oxford academic • Lollards • Main critiques: • Bible = infallible • above church authority and tradition • NT = model to judge church • holiness of character = true test of righteousness • not church position • attacked pope’s involvement in political disputes • Motivation = worldly • cult of saints = debased • ‘magical’ healing or blessings • Treasury of Merit • A fallacy and blasphemy • What is it and why is it so very important: see later….

20. Renaissance and Humanism • Revival of study of Greece and Rome • Renewed study of classical languages • Read New Testament in Greek • Read Old Testament in Hebrew • Challenge adequacy of Latin vulgate • Renewed study of ancient philosophy and increased rationalism in study • Challenge scholastic methods and assumptions

21. Other Trends • Printing • widespread dissemination of Luther’s ideas • vernacular translations of Bible • Preaching • demand for more educated form of piety • cities • Personalised spirituality • Mystical manuals (e.g. Cloud of Unknowing, Theologica Germanica)

22. Luther’s Context:Or some of them – he has a lot too… • 95 theses provoke debate • One issue = indulgences • Not attack on whole church • However, this provoked Rome • Met virulent opposition • excommunication 1521 =break with Rome Therefore: the Reformation begins in 1521/2 not 1517!

23. So what was the indulgence issue? • 5 Key factors • The practice of indulgences • Treasury of Merit • Purgatory and the cult of the dead • Tetzel • Luther’s arguments

24. The Practice of Indulgences • Originally: • Indulgences = a form of penance • For remittance of sins the church would impose a penance (i.e. fasting, pilgrimage, etc.) • The indulgence was a certificate to say this had been done • By Luther’s time: • Indulgences were (essentially) sold • While the notion of penance existed, most people associated getting the piece of paper with getting the reward • Moreover, they could be bought for other people, including the dead • They had also become associated with the idea of the Treasury of Merit

25. The Treasury of Merit • What was it? • A great celestial ‘bank account’ of holiness and good merit • Where did it come from? • The saints, due to their vast holiness and prayers, had built up more good merit than they needed for salvation, i.e. the Treasury of Merit is their surplus • Why was it useful? • Because it could be made available to ordinary believers to make up for their shortfall via the pope • It could also rescue those in purgatory… • The critique? • Wycliff: • idea = pure fantasy • pope could control = blasphemy

26. Purgatory and the Cult of the Dead • From c. C 11th become standard teaching • At death: mini judgement • Exceptionally good: heaven • Exceptionally bad: hell • Mediocrity: purgatory • A place of torture/ purgation – rid soul of sins and make ready for heaven • C 14th Black death and war • Great concern with dead • Whole families, even villages died – were they ready? • Late medieval faith, “was a religion practised by the living on behalf of the deceased”

27. Tetzel • Johannes Tetzel: • Indulgence seller for Archbishop of Mainz • 3 Sees and St Peter’s, Rome • “As soon as a penny in the pot both ring, a soul from purgatory will spring” • Utterly incensed Luther: • Posted 95 theses

28. Luther’s arguments • The nature of repentance: • Remission of sins from true repentance through Christ alone • (Theses 16-17) • The Pope’s authority: • Pope cannot forgive sin, only declare its forgiveness by God • (Theses 6) • At most, pope can only forgive church punishments in this life • (Theses 20,21,24,25) • Pope’s authority cannot extend to purgatory • (Theses 13-19, 22, 25) • Faulty theology: • No Treasury of Merit • (Thesis 62) • No use: • Better to give money to the poor than buy indulgences • (Theses 41-45) • Rhetoric: • “Why does not the Pope empty purgatory for the sake of most holy love and the supreme need of souls?” • (Theses 82) • “All those who believe themselves certain of their own salvation because of letters of pardon, will be eternally damned, together with their teachers.” • (Theses 32)

29. From debating points to Reformation • Why did the Reformation happen now? • The context?

30. The significance of the contexts • Into (early) modernity • Princes want freedom from Rome and control of church lands • The state of the church • Dissatisfaction • War and plague • Possibility for indulgences to be abused • Creates dissatisfaction • Challenge to traditional beliefs/ way of life • Calls for reform • It wasn’t new • A ready and primed audience • Renaissance and Humanism • Critique of church tradition • New intellectual currents • New emphasis upon religion of Jesus and Biblical views • Other factors • Luther’s pamphlets spread by local printer • A desire for a new forms of piety • Luther • Had political protection • Provided a spokesperson for ideas

31. Other factors in favour • Loss of prestige of church • Women vs. male hierarchy • Peasants want new social order • City burghers want new respect • Other influential reformers also appear…

32. The Reformation(s) • IMPORTANT: • Various uses: The Protestant Reformation; The Catholic (Counter-)Reformation; The Lutheran Reformation; The Reformation • The (Protestant) Reformation was the (natural) expression of long standing dissatisfaction with the church and its teachings • The Reformation was not a unified event – other currents/ thinkers either independently or inspired by Luther took it in different ways • Nevertheless, certain common features exist against the Reformations/ Reformers

33. The Main Issues in Reformation Thought • Indulgences • Priesthood • Tradition and scripture • Justification by faith alone • Sacraments • Central focus: • Back to basics • establish truths from the Biblical text

34. The Two Reformations • Magisterial Reformation • So-called because they accept civil magistrates • Want reform of corrupt practices in church • Traditional beliefs and practices accepted and adapted • Mainstream reformers: Luther, Calvin, Zwingli • Radical Reformation • Rejects all secular and conventional authority • Want total reform of the church • All beliefs and practices open to question • Anabaptist movement (and offshoots)

35. Martin Luther (1483-1546) • Biographical: • Entered order of Augustinian Friars 1505 • Professor of Biblical Theology at University of Wittenberg 1512 • Public attention 1917 • Confrontation with Rome: Leipzig Disputation 1519; Diet of Augsburg 1518 – Frederick the Wise, German soil, fled; Excommunication 3rd Jan 1521; Diet of Worms 1521 – banished by Charles V; ‘prison’ Wartburg; ‘free’ 1522 • Theological • Personal concerns for salvation – not justified by being a good monk • Rethinking of previous theology • The theology of the cross • Free Grace – justification • Both ideas from: Johann von Staupitz – spiritual father • Was the Reformation a continuation of late medieval trends not a new movement? • Politics • Protection of Frederick the Wise • Indulgences and relics • German princes tired of Roman control • The Peasant's War

36. John Calvin (1509-1564) • Significance • Second generation of reformers • Saw himself as faithful follower of Luther • greatest theological systematizer • theocratic state – Geneva • Model for others • Theology • God’s absolute sovereignty • Humans utterly sinful - entirely dependent on God’s grace • unable to do anything for own salvation • Augustine & Luther • Predestination • God pre-decided the elect • gives grace • No salvation apart from this • Geneva • Arrives 1536 – invited to set up reform; leaves 1538; invited to return 1541 • Sets up reforming system and school - spreads

37. Huldrych Zwingli (1484-1531)aka Ulrich, Huldreich • ‘The Third Man of the Reformation’ • Life: • Early role as pastor to mercenaries in papal employ • Vicar of Zurich 1519 • Sets up reform programme (before Lutheran?) • Died in battle • Main difference with others: • Sacramental theology • Catholic Church accepts 7 sacraments • (Most) Reformers accept 2 (baptism and Eucharist) • Eucharistic theology • Catholic: transubstantiation • Luther: Christ’s real presence • Zwingli: just a memorial

38. Radical Reformation • Often termed Anabaptist – but not unified group • Early Anabaptist movement around Zurich • Swiss Brethren 1525 • Dispute with Zwingli • Anaptist – re-baptist • Only accept adult baptism • Difference: reject all church tradition • Only adult baptism in NT • Reject anything not in NT • Therefore (some) dispute Trinity, Divinity of Christ • Most killed: Munster • Continuation: Quakers, Amish

39. Seminar: • Justification by faith • Bible and Tradition

40. Read Luther:The ‘autobiographical introduction’or ‘Preface to his Works’ of 1545 • Discuss the following four questions: • What change occurs in Luther’s understanding of the term ‘the righteousness of God’ • Luther sees ‘faith’ as essential to salvation. Discuss what it means to him in relation to these three terms/ ideas: knowledge; trust; unity. • Find the term ‘passive righteousness’. What do you understand Luther to mean by this? How does it relate to faith? • What difference is there between Luther’s theology of justification outlined here and what you know of previous medieval/ Catholic beliefs and practices.

41. Luther • Answers: • What change occurs in Luther’s understanding of the term ‘the righteousness of God’ • From a wrathful God – righteousness = punishment of unrighteousness • To loving God – righteousness = forgiveness of sinners • Luther sees ‘faith’ as essential to salvation. Discuss what it means to him in relation to these three terms/ ideas: knowledge; trust; unity. • Faith is personal not just knowledge of historical events • Faith requires a leap to trust that God will remit sins • Faith unites the believer to Christ • Find the term ‘passive righteousness’. What do you understand Luther to mean by this? How does it relate to faith? • This means that salvation is God’s work, we do nothing – it is given • Therefore, we do justify ourselves by having faith, rather, because we have faith God will graciously save us, but even this faith is a gift from God • What difference is there between Luther’s theology of justification outlined here and what you know of previous medieval/ Catholic beliefs and practices. • It is a change from salvation through works – the believer does good and purifies himself to become acceptable before God to belief that man’s inherent sinfulness means he/she can never be acceptable before God and so salvation is pure ‘graciousness’

42. The Bible and Tradition • Problem 1: The translation of the text • Problem 2: The OT – the content of scripture • Problem 3: The authority of tradition and scripture

43. Problem 1: Translation • The Latin Vulgate • Accepted translation/ version of Bible • Jerome: 382 and 405 CE • Honoured by centuries of tradition • However: • Renaissance scholarship found flaws • Comparison with Greek and Hebrew • Raises many questions: • Why do some versions assume ‘authoritative status’, e.g. AV? • Why does Christianity accept translations as the Bible (vs. Islam and Judaism and Hinduism)? • Is it necessary to read Greek, Aramaic, and Syriac (several forms of each) to understand the NT?

44. Problem 2: The Old Testament • 3 versions • Comparison of Vulgate against Hebrew Bible • ‘Extra books’ rejected by reformers • Addition to Jewish canon • Form appendix: apocrypha • another agenda: some Catholic practises, praying for the dead, found in ‘apocrypha’ (2 Macc. 12: 40-6) • Question: what scripture consists of. • Issues arising: • Who decides what is in or out? • Christian vs. Jewish tradition? • New lists of scriptural works – now OT in debate

45. Problem 3: Grounding authority (i) • Sola Scriptura – by scripture alone • This motto of the Reformation meant that anything not grounded in scripture was: • Not essential to salvation • Was not countenanced for Christian belief • Question: what is the role of tradition for the reformers?

46. Problem 3: Grounding authority (ii) • Read Calvin, selected from The Institutes of the Christian Religion, VIII, 8, 9, 10, 11 & IX, 2, 8 • Compare with The Council of Trent on scripture and tradition • How would you define the difference between the Protestant and Roman Catholic positions on the relationship and role of tradition and scripture as expressed here?

47. Problem 3: Grounding authority (iii) • 3 theories of scripture and tradition (McGrath): • T0: scripture as interpreted in the Spirit • Sebastian Franck (16th): “[The Bible] is a book sealed with seven seals which none can open unless he has the key of David, which is the illumination of the Spirit” • T1: scripture as traditionally understood • Calvin: “The difference between us and the papists is that they believe that the church cannot be the pillar of the truth unless she presides over the Word of God. We, on the other hand, assert that it is because she reverently subjects herself to the Word of God that the truth is preserved by her, and passed on to others by her hands.” • T2: scripture supplemented by tradition • Council of Trent (1546): “All saving truths and rules of conduct… are contained in the written books and in the unwritten traditions, received from the mouth of Christ himself or from the apostles themselves.”

48. Concluding Discussion • By deciding what constituted scripture were the Reformers not actually asserting the tradition of the church (to be able to make and change the Christian canon) as more important than scripture? • Some people have suggested that the Reformation rather than strengthening the prestige of the Bible, by providing a fundamental challenge to all authority – including that of the text – provided a vital step in the development of Biblical criticism. To what extent do you think this might be true? • Many reform movements, such as the Reformation, have envisaged a return to the original revelation and the pure teachings of the text. Is it ever possible to return to an original text? What constitutes a barrier to this?