CASARA NAVIGATION REVIEW

1. CASARA NATIONAL NAVIGATOR COURSE CASARA NAVIGATION REVIEW

2. Air Navigation • There are different types of Air Navigation. Those of concern to the CASARA Navigator are • Pilotage - navigation by reference to visual landmarks only. • Dead Reckoning – navigating by use of previously calculated vectors for wind, track, distance, headings and speeds. • Navigation – navigating by reference only to radio signals from surface facilities or satellites.

3. Principals of Air Navigation The Principals of Air Navigation are that: • You must be able to determine your LOCATION and that of the DESTINATION and any WAYPOINT on route. • You must be able to measure and fly the TRACK or BEARING which will take you to your destination. (cont’d)

4. Principals of Air Navigation • You must be able to measure the DISTANCE between the two. • You must know the SPEED at which your aircraft flies. • You must be able to calculate the EFFECT OF WIND on your progress.

5. Latitude & Longitude

6. Parallels of Latitude • The first key to LOCATION to early navigators was the fact that the sun would reach its highest point at noon and the angle between the sun and the horizon (the EQUATOR) could be measured. • If you remained at this angle as you went west you remained on a PARALLEL OF LATITUDE.

7. Parallels of Latitude • PARALLELS OF LATITUDE, or parallels in short, are SMALL CIRCLES (ie.not necessarily through the centre of the Earth) whose plane is parallel to the equator and each other. The Parallels are used to specify the angle, in degrees, at which a point is located relative to the Equator.

8. Parallels of Latitude • Another feature of the PARALLELS OF LATITUDE is that the distance between each degree is the same. In fact the Nautical Mile used in air and sea navigation is the distance along a minute of Latitude • or 1/60th of a Degree of Latitude • or 6000 feet. (Actually the earth is not perfectly round and there is a slight variation between Parallels of Latitude but it is not significant to our discussion)

9. Meridians of Longitude • Longitude is related to the sun’s travel. • The sun was seen to move across the sky returning to its original position once every day or 24 hours. • This equated to 15 degrees every hour and is what the different time zones are generally based upon. • If the navigator knew time accurately he could determine, by when the sun was at its highest point, on which line of longitude he was positioned.

10. Meridians of Longitude • With the first accurate timepiece, the chronometer, the British started drawing accurate maps with the Longitude Line which passed through Greenwich England, the location of the original observatory, as the 0 degree or the Prime Meridian, and Greenwich Mean Time became the world standard. • Subsequent Meridians of Longitude were counted East and West from 0 degrees to 180 degrees. • The 1800 Meridian is also known as the International Date Line where one loses a day as you cross it travelling west or gains a day crossing it in an easterly direction.

11. Longitude & Time • When the atomic clock came along it replaced the observations from the Greenwich Observatory.Now, the world (and ICAO) standard for time is “Universal Coordinated Time” or “UTC”. “UTC” is now abbreviated to “Z”.

12. Meridians of Longitude • A MERIDIAN of LONGITUDE is an arc on a GREAT CIRCLE (through the centre of the Earth) that extends from one pole to the opposite pole (Half of a Great Circle). • Because the Meridians • of LONGITUDE converge at the poles, they are not parallel and the length of a degree of LONGITUDE decreases to ZERO as you approach the poles.

13. Longitude • On this larger scale depiction, you can see how the length of a degree of Longitude decreases as you move from the Equator while length of a degree of Latitude is always the same. • This will help you to understand why, when we measure DISTANCE, we can used the Latitude scale but never the Longitude.

14. TrueNorth 75°N 50°N 25°N 30° 0° 0° 25°S 50°S 75°S TrueSouth Degrees of Lat & Long Equator

15. Location • The measurement of LATITUDE starts at the EQUATOR and is measured NORTH and SOUTH from 00 to 900. • The measurement of Longitude starts at the PRIME MERIDIAM which passes through Greenwich England and is measured from 00 EAST and WEST to the INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE at 1800 East or West. • This is shown on the next slide.

16. TrueNorth 75°N 25°N 0° 25°S 50°S 75°S TrueSouth Degrees of Lat & Long International Date Line 1800 50°N 090°W 045°W Equator 030°E 030°W 0° Prime Meridian

17. Location • When working with Latitude and Longitude there are several points to keep in mind: • Latitude ALWAYS comes first. • Both are written in the order Degrees, then Minutes and then either Seconds (49°05’15”N) or decimals of a minute (49°05.250’N). • The numbers are ALWAYS followed by (or preceded by) the direction from the Equator, North or South, (49°05’15”N, S15°15’15”) or from the Prime Meridian, East or West, (149°05.250’W, E105°10.250’).

18. Location • Degrees of Latitude should always be written as two digits (47°N), • Degrees of Longitude should always have three digits (073°W), minutes and • Seconds should be two digits in each case. • Ex: • Latitude:47° 20’ 30”N (“Forty seven degrees, twenty minutes, thirty seconds North”) • Longitude: 073° 10’ 30”W

19. Location • If you use decimals of minutes (the normal for GPS and other navigation systems) they should be written as two digits followed by three digits after the decimal to avoid confusion with seconds. • Ex: • Latitude:47° 20.500’N(“Forty seven degrees, twenty point five zero zero minutes North”) • Longitude: 073° 10.500’W

20. Location Locate position: 470 25.700’N 0730 10.400’W

21. GEOREF

22. GEOREF System • The GEOREF system is another way to identify locations by blocks (useful in assigning search areas). • It is made up of rectangles of 1 degree of latitude and longitude. • Each rectangle is identified by a two-letter symbol Ex: CG. • On large scale maps these letters are included in the Latitude and Longitude grid

23. GEOREF System • On smaller scale maps such as the Joint Operations Graphic, this information is in the legend. • Each 10 rectangle is divided into four 30’ segments. • These are identified by numbers 1-4 starting at upper left hand corner Ex: “CG 2”. • Each of these 30’ segments is further divided into four 15” sections identified further by letters again, Ex: “CG 2 c” as per the next slide.

24. GEOREF CG 2 c CG

25. Direction

26. Direction • Now that we know how to locate positions on the map we have to be able to find our way from one to the other. • To do this we have to draw a line from our starting point to our first turning point (or our destination) and determine the track or direction from one to the other. • We use the Meridians of Longitude as our directional reference as these run between the North and the South poles, that is TRUE NORTH and SOUTH.

27. Direction • In order to make use of this reference to TRUE NORTH, we need a protractor. • A protractor is a clear plastic square, circle or semi-circle marked out with the 360 degrees of the compass. .

28. Protractor

29. Direction • When we lay the centre over our starting point and align “N” with the meridian that runs through the location,we have a proper reference to TRUE NORTH. • Now we read the degrees where our track intersects the COMPASS ROSE on the protractor. • This is our TRUE TRACK to our destination or turning point

30. Direction & Bearing

31. The magnetic compass was one of the first navigation instruments. It is still frequently the only direction-indicating instrument in many aircraft. Compass Since it is a reliable, self-contained unit, requiring no external power of any kind, The MAGNETIC COMPASS is extremely useful as a stand-by or emergency instrument. But it does have its limitations.

32. True vs Magnetic North • It would be nice if the NORTH which is used as a reference for our compass (Magnetic North) was in the same position as the NORTH used on our maps (True North) but this is not the case.

33. Magnetic North The earth is a huge magnet. All magnets have lines of force that exit one end and re-enter the other end. The earth is very similar but the MAGNETIC POLE is not co-located with the TRUE POLE.

34. True vs Magnetic North • Magnetic North lies in Canada to the south of the North Pole on Ellesmere Island … and it changes location very gradually, though not enough to affect our day to day navigation. • This next slide shows where the Magnetic pole has travelled since the year 1600.

35. Magnetic North Pole

36. True vs Magnetic North • The earth’s Magnetic north is about 450 nm from the earth’s Geographic (True) North. • Because we in Canada are so close to the Magnetic pole the angle between the two is much greater than it would be if we were farther away. • The angle between the location of True North and Magnetic North is called VARIATION.

37. TrueNorth TrueSouth Magnetic North Because the Magnetic pole is south of the True Pole, if you were in the west of the country your compass would point EAST of True North. That means the Variation is East. If you lived in the east, your compass would point WEST of True North. This means Variation is WEST Magnetic north Variation West Variation East Variation 0° And if you lived in Marathon ON, There would be NO Variation at all.

38. Compass • The first compass was probably a sliver of lodestone on a thread. Fortunately for us, somebody did discover that a magnetized needle would always point to the north. Unfortunately, that is only partly true. • The compass points to MAGNETIC north. All our maps however, are oriented to TRUE north and any directions obtained by using the sun or stars are also referenced to TRUE north. • When you specify a direction, you must also specify the reference North you used. It helps to know the difference.

39. Direction & Variation • True North is the real North Pole as you look at a globe) • Magnetic North is where your compass points (sort of?) • Difference between Mag and True is Magnetic Variation and may be EAST and subtracted from the TRUE value or WEST and added to the TRUE value • (Variation EAST, magnetic LEAST / variation WEST, magnetic BEST) • Variation is shown on the chart & maps. • Trick question: What is the maximum Variation?

40. Answer • VARIATION can vary the full range of the compass (ie. 360 degrees) since the observer may be standing on the North Pole side of the Magnetic Pole. • But since VARIATION is measured as EAST and WEST, the maximum VARIATION is 1800 EAST or 1800 WEST.

41. True North M.North Variation 20° E M.North Var20º E 045ºT – 0250M Desired Track Magnetic North This is a graphic example from the west where Variation is 20°E (twenty degrees East or –20°). 278°T – 2580M Desired Track

42. T.North M.North Var20º W Direction Magnetic North In eastern Canada the magnetic pole is left of the geographic pole so the variation is west and the compass headings are larger than true headings. If your track were 315°T and the variation were 20°W, your magnetic track wouldbe: 315ºT – 3350M 315°T+20°W = 335°M

43. The Variation Rule VARIATION EAST–MAGNETIC LEAST(The Magnetic direction is a SMALLER number than true direction). VARIATION WEST – MAGNETIC BEST(The Magnetic direction is a LARGER number than the true direction).

44. Variation & Maps Variation is shown on most maps as a dashed line with the number of degrees East or West marked along it. In our part of the world the lines run from Northeast to Southwest. On very small-scale maps the variation may be given in the legend and apply to the whole sheet. IsogonicLine 20°E

45. Variation & Maps On maps with aviation information a navigation facility is often shown with a compass rose which is based on a magnetic North. Note the difference between the Longitude line and NORTH on the Compass Rose.

46. Variation • The Canada Flight Supplement gives the variation for every landing area it contains. • As mentioned earlier, another way you can determine the variation is to consult the compass rose around any VOR or VORTAC site on your Aeronautical Chart. There are a couple of things to bear in mind if you use one of these. • In the southern Domestic Airspace, the compass rose is oriented to Magnetic North. • BUT in the Northern Domestic Airspace the compass rose is oriented to True North.

47. Variation • If you apply the variation in one part of a map to another portion at some distance, the variation will probably be in error as VARIATION differs from place to place. • While it is 21°E in Comox, it is 20°W in Yarmouth. • Always use the variation that you read from the map in the immediate area in which you will be flying. If your search will take place between two variation lines on your map, choose the variation that is closest to the centre of your area.

48. Compass North • The next north you have to deal with is Compass North. • The Cardinal points of the compass are North, South, East, West. • As numerical values, these are : 360, 180, 090, 270 Degrees, always expressed in three numbers.

49. Compass North • Every vehicle has its own magnetic field caused by metal parts, wiring, ignition and so on.This magnetic field affects the Compass. • In order to have the compass read as close as possible to Magnetic North it must be “swung” and corrected for DEVIATION. • During the compass swing the compass is adjusted to remove as much Deviation as possible. The remaining error is almost insignificant. It should not exceed 5°.

50. Compass North • You treat Deviation as you treat Variation. If Deviation is East, Compass is Least. • The amount of Deviation affecting your compass will vary with the heading of the aircraft. There should be a Compass Correction (Deviation) card close to every compass in every aircraft. • The Compass Correction Card will look something like this: